
Class ____LJ_71 
Book ■' 



GoRTigiUxX^ 



.H "^9 



Ci)F»UGHT DEPOSIT. 



A BRIEF REVIEW 

of 

United States 
History 



Compiled for Candidates for 



WEST POINT AND ANNAPOLIS 



AND FOR THE 



CIVIL SERVICE 



By ALBERT K. HAWKINS 

Instructor, Severn Scliool 



/ 
A BRIEF REVIEW 

of S. /■) 

United States History 



INCLUDING 



America's Part in the 
Great War 



COMPILED FOR CANDIDATES FOR 



West Point, Annapolis and the Civil Service 



By 

Albert K. Hawkins 






Copyright, 1919. 
By Albert K. Hawkins. 



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OCT 29 ISIb 



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PREFACE 



This pamphlet was prepared to meet the needs of all who desire 
to make a brief but comprehensive review of United States history, 
and who wish to gain a grasp of the subject as a whole in the very- 
limited time at their disposal. Especially should it appeal to those 
who are preparing to take the examinations for entrance to West Point 
or Annapolis, or for the Civil Service. 

The average history text-book, with its five hundred to seven hun- 
dred pages of subject matter, serves but to confuse the student who 
must make a very quick review of the subject. On the other hand, 
many of the numerous outlines and condensed forms offer so little sub- 
ject matter as to be practically worthless to the student who is not pre- 
pared to devote months to the stu. The author has aimed to make 
this pamphlet serve the purposes of both outline and text. Where the 
student's time permits, it will be found most valuable as a guide to be 
used in connection with some standard text, and as such will be used 
in tlie class rooms at Severn School. 

A. K. HAWKINS. 

Severn School, 

Boone, Md., June, 1919. 



A Brief Review of United States History 



THE MOUND BUILDERS. 



Many centuries before the coming of the first Europeans to the 
shores of America this continent was inhabited by a race of semi- 
civilized beings about whom very little is known. They are known to 
history as the Mound Builders. Traces of the work of this pre-historic 
people may still be found in many parts of the country, particularly 
m the valleys of the Ohio, Mississippi and Missouri rivers, and in the 
region of the Great Lakes. Immense artificial mounds of earth in 
perfect geometric design remain today monuments to this mysterious 
people, a race which flourished in a period possibly antedating consid- 
erably the coming of the Indian. From these mounds have been taken 
clay pottery of superior construction, ornaments of silver, copper and 
bone, and highly polished metal and stone weapons. Considerable 
knowledge of mining is indicated by the excavations in the Lake 
Superior region, from which these people took masses of copper, some- 
times weighing tons. Some of the mounds appear to have been 
defensive works, others to have served for ceremonial purposes, or for 
burial places. A few of them reach elevations of nearly a hundred 
feet and cover several acres ; others, a few feet in height, extend for 
miles. Conclusive proof of the antiquity of these hillocks is found in 
the fact that on many of them are growing trees from four hundred 
to eight hundred years old. 

A number of ingenious theories have been advanced to account 
for the origin in America of this interesting race. Some historians 
are of the opinion that the Mound Builders and kindred types were 
descendants of Asiatics that may have been driven by storm or a 
spirit of adventure to seek the shores of America. Assuming the birth- 
place of the human race to have been in Asia, the theory is plausible ; 
yet this continent may have been peopled by way Of Europe rather 
than by way of the Pacific. IMuch uuist ever remain, however, a mat- 
ter of mere conjecture. That the present-day Indians are descendants 
of the Mound Builders is the claim of some writers; others hold that 
the race which raised the great mounds is wholly extinct. There is, 
however, a very apparent physical similarity between our Indians of 
extreme northwestern North America and certain IMongolians of 
northeastern Asia. 



THE INDIAN. 

There were several great divisions, or families, and numerous sub- 
divisions, or tribes, of North American Indians. These may be out- 
lined as follows: 

1. The Iroquois, found for the most part in the Middle Atlantic 
states and about the shores of lakes Erie and Ontario. Six tribes of 
the Iro(|Uois, the Cayugas, JMohawks, Oneidas, Senecas, Onandagas, 
and Tuscaroras were loosely united to form what was known as the 
Six Nations. This confederation was found chiefly in New York. The 
Clierokees and Pawnees were tribes of Iroquois in the Ohio Valley. 
The Iroquois were among the most warlike of American Indians. 

2. The Algonquin family surrounded the Iroquois on all sides, 
occupying territory from Labrador through New England and 
Canada to the base of the Rocky Mountains and as far south as South 
Carolina. Some of the more noted of the tribes were the Mohegan, 
Lenni Lenape, ]\Iiami. Illinois, Sac, Fox, Ojilnva, Blackfoot and 
Shawnee. 

3. The Athabascans, extending from the Arctic regions to Mexico 
and embracing such tribes as the Apaelies. the Navajos, the Beavers, 
and others. Tiie Athabascans were, for the most part, west of the 
Rockies. 

■4. .The Dakota or Sioux family Avas found in the re«ion west of 
the Great Lakes and about the headwaters of the Mississippi and 
Missouri rivers. The Crows, Assiniboines, Omahas, Osages and "VVin- 
nebagoes were well known tribes of the Sioux. 

5. The Muscofji family occupied the southern jiart of the United 
States. The leading tribes were the Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws and 
Seminoles. 

6. The Shoshone family embraced the Aztecs of Mexico, the Co- 
manches, the Snakes, the Utes, and others. 

Before the coming of the whites there were hardly more than 
five hundred thousand Indians in the whole of North America. In 
development these ranged from the lowest savagery to an advanced 
state of barbarism. On the coming of the white man, the tribes in 
the east were puslied farther and farther west until today only a few 
reservations shelter tiie red man, islands threatened by the onrushing 
wave of civilization. Susceptible as the Indian was to the influence of 
the whites, he could not long withstand contact with civilization. The 
worst side of his charaeter soon became pronr need, and he either 
succumbed to the wiiite man's evils, or becan.e a mere degenerate 
pensioner or ward of the government. 



DISCOVERIES OF THE NORTHMEN. 

Nearly five hundred years before the voyage of Columbus America 
is known to have been visited by the Northmen. These hardy Norse 
sailor* made settlements in Iceland in the ninth century and a little 
later Eric the Red planted a colony in Greenland. About the year 
1000 A. D., Lief Ericson, his son, known as "Lief the Lucky," made 
a temporary settlement on the coast of North America, which he called 
Vinland. According to the old Norse sagas, several voyages were 
made to the new lands, but the settlement was evidently abandoned 
after a time and knowledge of the existence of America was again lost 
to the world. Since Europe, at the time of Columbus, appears to have 
had no knowledge of the explorations of the Northmen, and since these 
discoveries added nothing to geographical knowledge and left no per- 
manent effect on the world, it is fitting that Columbus be given the 
credit for the discovery of the New World. 

THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS. 

In 1453 the Mohammedans captured Constantinople and hence- 
forth this great gateway to the riches of the East was barred to the 
Christian nations of Europe. A new route to the Indies must be 
found or Europe would lose a highly profitable trade with the Orient. 
The Italian Renaissance brought with it to the people of Europe a 
thirst for geographical knowledge and commercial enterprise. The 
Portuguese sent their daring navigators to search for a water route 
to India. These ultimately rounded the southern extremity of Africa 
and found a route to India by way of the Indian Ocean. In 1492 the 
fall of Granada freed western Europe from the danger of Moorish 
domination, and Spain, alarmed at the growing importance of Portu- 
gal, was ready for new enterprise. Thus the time was ripe for the work 
of Columbus. 

Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa, Italy. Most of his 
early life was spent on the sea and he soon became deeply interested 
in nautical science. For some years he resided at Lisbon, making voy- 
ages from time to time and spending the intervals in map drawing and 
study. Like most educated men of his time, Columbus believed the 
earth to be round. He appears to have been one of the first, however, 
to conceive the idea of reaching the Indies by sailing westward. Soon 
this idea became the dominant force in his career. Not having the 
means to carry out 1 's great project, he sought aid from the various 
sovereigns of Europe.r Re])uffed at the courts of Portugal, Italy and 
England, he was about to apply to France, when the Spanish sover- 



eigrns showed a teiuleney to consider liis project. After months of 
discouragement, Columhus received through (^ueen Isabella of Sj)ain 
the means for carrying out his great plan. 

The most famous of all sea voyages began on the morning of 
August 3, 1492. Columbus, commanding a little squadron consisting 
of the Santa Maria, the Pinta and the Nina, set sail from Palos, Spain, 
for the Canarv' Islands on the first leg of his great voyage. After a 
slioi-t stay at the Canaries, he launched boldly westward and for weeks 
held his course. Day after day the little squadron was swept onward 
in the path of the northeast trades. Despite superstition and treachery 
in his crew, alarming variations of the compass, and the imminence of 
mutiny, Columbus remained calm in the faith of his great purpose. 
After a. month of this progress signs of nearness to land became ap- 
])arent. and each day became more numerous. On October 12, land 
was actually reached and the fears of the crew were forgotten. The 
fir.st land reached seems to have been the island of San Salvador, or 
"Watling. in the Bahama group of the West Indies. Several days later 
Columbus readied the coast of Cuba and soon after, the coast of Ilayti. 
F'irm in his belief that he had reached the coveted shores of India, he 
left a garrison of 4-0 men on one of the islands and with his two re- 
maining sliips hurried back to Spain. 

In 1493 Colum1)us. with a fleet of seventeen ships, returned to 
America, only to find that liis colonists had i)erished to the last man. 
A colony was made in San Domingo and three years were spent in 
exjtloring the region. 

Ill 149S Columbus again returned to the New World, tliis time 
discovering Trinidad and the mainland of South America, near tlie 
mouth of the Orinoco River. 

In 1502, on his fourth and last voyage, the Great Admiral dis- 
covered the coast of Central America and the Isthmus of Darien 
(Panama). Broken in health and di.sappointe(l in his quest of the 
wealth of the Indies, forsaken by his friends and discredited at home, 
Columbus made his last voyage into the Great Unknown. He died 
thinking lie had failed, but Spain had gained a foothold in the New 
AYorld. 

LATER SPANISH EXPLORERS. 

In less than a decade after the discoveries and explorations of 
Columbus Spain liad established ]>ermanent colonies in the West 
Indies. She now took the lead in ex]>loTations of the nearby regions. 
Her explorers ]M'netrated farther and farther into the interior of the 
new continents until by the middle of the sixteenth eentuiy they had 



overrun an expanse of territory greater than the whole of Europe. 
Gold, silver, precious stones, in amounts exceeding the fondest dreams 
of Columbus, flowed copiously back to the mother country, replenish- 
ing the depleted coffers of Spain, and making her the richest nation of 
Europe. Yet all the while Spain was steadily losing one of her chief 
elements of greatness for the best blood of the nation was being 
drained from the barren mother country and infused into the colonies 
in the New World. The best of her people, the reliant, progressive, 
adventurous young manhood, had caught the lure of the new lands. 
A century or two later, chafing under the burdensome yoke of the 
Spanish government, this virile element of her own people contributed 
to the decline of Spain to a position of world obscurity. 

There follows a brief outline of the work of the most noted of the 
Spanish explorers and colonizers, arranged in chronological order as 
nearly as possible. 

Americus Vespncius. — An Italian in the employ of Spain, 
Vespucius in 1499 coasted along the continent of America for hun- 
dreds of miles. A few years later, while sailing for Portugal, he ex- 
plored South America, touching the coast of Brazil. His published 
account of these explorations attracted much attention in Europe and 
resulted in the name America being applied to Brazil and finally ex- 
tended to both continents. 

Ponce de Leon. — One of the earliest of the Spanish explorers in 
America, having accompanied Columbus on his second expedition. By 
the conquest of Porto Rico he amassed great wealth. Ha^dng heard 
of a country to the north in which there was a fountain of perpetual 
youth, he determined to visit it. In 1513 he landed on the shore of 
Florida, and at once penetrated into the interior. For months the 
little band of Spaniards wandered through tlie wilderness, enduring 
all manner of hardships and continually beset by hostile natives. An 
attempt to colonize proved unsuccessful and at length Ponce de Leon 
fell mortally wounded in one of his battles Avith the Indians. This was 
the first of several equally unsuccessful ventures at conquest or 
colonization. 

Balboa. — A Spanisli adventurer and outlaw, who, early in the 
sixteenth century, established himself on the isthmus of Darien. In 
1513, having heard from the Indians of a great expanse of water to the 
west, he made his way with a few followers to the crest of the isthmus 
and for the first time saw the Pacific, or South Sea, as he called it. 
Returning to the Spanish settlements on the east coast, he found him- 
self temporarily in favor. Shortly after this, however, Balboa was 
beheaded on a charge of treason. 

9 



Hernando Cortcz. — Sailing from Santiago de Cuba with eleven 
vessels and 700 men, Cortez landed in 1519 on the coast of Mexico. 
He burned his ships in order that his soldiers might have no alterna- 
tive to the conquest of the Aztecs. After meeting stubborn resistance, 
he at length made his way to the Aztec capital, where the Montezuma 
met him in a friendly spirit. News of a conspiracy against him led 
him to secure ]\Iontezuma as a hostage. The Aztec king died and the 
Spaniards were driven from the city with great loss. It was not until 
1521 that Cortez was again able to re-enter the city. A few years later 
the country had fallen completely under the dominion of Spain. The 
conquest of Mexico furnished enormous riches to the Spanish govern- 
ment. 

Ferdinand Magellan. — A Portuguese navigator, who, while in the 
service of Spain, conducted the first expedition to circumnavigate the 
globe. In 1520 Magellan sailed westward from Spain in command of 
five small vessels. Reaching the coast of South America, he at length 
pas.sed through the strait that bears his name and turned north into 
the Pacific. Despite los.s of part of his fleet, disea.se and hardship 
among his crew, in constant peril of death by thirst or starvation, he 
continued boldly westward and at length reached a group of islands 
which he called the Ladrones. A few weeks later he discovered the 
Philippine Islands, where a combat with the hostile natives cost him 
his life. His surviving followei's made their way to the Spice Islands 
and thence, following the Portuguese trade routes via of the Indian 
Ocean and the Cape of Good Hope, continued homeward. Three years 
after the start of the expedition fifteen members of the crew, with one 
.ship, reached Spain safely. As a result of ^Magellan's remarkable 
enterprise Spain laid claim, by right of discovery and exploration, to 
vast territory about the Pacific. 

GeyrdiUo. — Explored the southeastern coast of North America in 
1520. 

DrAyllon. — A Spaniard, who, with five hundred men, sailed north- 
ward along the Atlantic coa.st in 1526 and made an unsuccessful at- 
tempt to found a colony in what is now Virginia, on Chesai)eake Bav. 

DeNari'arz. — Explored the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico 
in 1528, with several hundred men and four ships. When off tlje 
moutli of tlie Mississippi DeXarvaez's ex{)edition was overtaken by a 
violent storm in which nearly all perished. Cabeza de Vaca, one of 
the few .survivors, with three companions fell into the hands of the 
Indians. For nearly eight years the.se wandered from tribe to tribe, 
and at length reached the Spani.sh settlements in Mexico. 

10 



Coronado. — Led by tales of great riches to be found to the north- 
ward, Coronado, governor of a province in IMexico, about 1540 set out 
in search of the fabled cities of Cibola. His expedition discovered 
many Pueblos of the Southwest, the Grand Canyon of the Colorado, 
and even penetrated as far north as the state of Kansas. His explora- 
tions laid the basis for the Spanish colonization of what is now south- 
western United States. 

DeSoto. — In 1539 DeSoto, one of the most picturesque and daring 
of the Spanish explorers, set out with a well equipped expedition to 
conquer Florida, confident that he would succeed where others had 
failed. From the very first, however, his progress was hindered by 
the bitter hostility of the natives with whom his expedition came in 
contact. DeSoto penetrated the interior as far north as the Carolinas. 
His line of march, turning southwestward, at length brought him 
to the banks of the Mississippi, near the present site of Memphis. He 
is thus credited with the discovery of this mighty stream, the Father 
of Waters (1541). His little band, weakened through privations and 
losses in battle, wandered for months in the region west of the river, 
and after a time again reached its banks near the present city of New 
Orleans. Here DeSoto died and here he was buried secretly in the 
stream by his discouraged followers. Hurriedly building rough boats, 
the survivors of the ill-fated expedition floated down the river to its 
mouth and finally made their way to the settlements on the east coast 
of Mexico. 

Menendez. — In 1565 Menendez founded St. Augustine in Florida, 
the oldest city in the j^resent bounds of the United States. 

FRENCH DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION. 

In 1493, by Papal edict, a "Line of Demarcation" had been fixed 
to coincide with the meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde 
Islands. All heathen lands west of this line were to be the property 
of Spain, all heathen territory east of the line was reserved to Portu- 
gal. The English and French, however, soon ignored the Line of 
Demarcation, and during the sixteenth century sent out numerous 
expeditions to explore and colonize the New World. For more than a 
century none of these attempts menaced greatly Spain's position in 
America, since they were for the most part merely preliminary to more 
energetic efforts in the seventeenth century. Soon after the year 1600 
France gained a permanent foothold in northeastern North America, 
while England at the same time established important colonies in Vir- 
ginia and New England. While Spain was declining through her own 
inherent weakness, France and England Avere rapidly rising to a 

11 



foremost place among the nations. Spain having by this time con- 
fined her activities to South America, the "West Indies and extreme 
southern North America, a contest between England and France for 
supremacy in eastern North America was inevitable. 

There follows a brief outline of the work of the most important 
of the French explorers and colonizers. 

Verrazano. — A Florentine navigator in the service of Francis I of 
France. Verrazano states that in 1624 he landed in the vicinity of 
Cape Fear, N. C. ; sailed southward along the coast for some distance, 
and then, turning north, cruised along the coast as far as New Eng- 
land. He is believed to have entered Chesapeake Bay, New York 
Bay, and other important indentations along the coast. 

Carticr. — Ten years after the voyage of Verrazano (1534) 
Jaccpies Cartier, another French explorer, made a voyage to the Gulf 
of St. Lawrence, exploring the neighboring region. The next year, on 
a second voyage, Cartier ascended the St. Lawrence in search of a 
passage to India. He found his way barred at the present site of 
^Montreal l)y rapids which he called Lachine, or ''Chinese." Here he 
conducted a profitable trade witli tlie Indians, establishing a small trad- 
ing post. 

Jean Rihcnit. — Sent out by tlie great French Huguenot, Admiral 
Coligny, Kibaut, assisted by Laudonniere, made a settlement in 1562 
at Port Royal, South Carolina. A little later he placed a colony on 
the St. John's River in Florida. These settlements, however, were 
soon destroyed and the colonists massacred by Spaniards under the 
cruel ]\Tenendez, who about this time established St. Augustine. Tliis 
ended French attempts to colonize in the southeast. 

Gourges. — A Frenchman who made fearful retaliation for tlie 
massacre of Ribaut and his colonists by destroying a Spanish colony in 
Florida. 

Do Montfi. — Having received from the French government an 
extensive grant of territoiy in America. De ]\Ionts and a number of 
colonists came out in 1604 and established an agricultural settlement 
at Port Royal, Acadia, near the mouth of the St. Lawrence. 

Champlain. — One of the most important of French exjjlorers, 
sometimes called the "Father of New France," Champlain explored 
carefully the region about tlie St. Lawrence, penetrating into what is 
now northern New York and discovering the lake that bears his name. 
In 1608 he founded Quebec and two years later Montreal. Champlain 
allied himself with the Algonquin Indians of Canada by participating 
in several raids against tlie Iroquois. This may have furnislK^d the 
basis for the bitter hostility shown the French by the New York 

12 



State Indians for more than a eeutmy afterwards. In 1620 
Champlain was appointed governor of Canada. During the following- 
years he conducted affairs with ability, doing much to extend French 
influence and civilization in America. 

Jean Nicolef. — In 1634 Nicolet, sent out by Champlain, discov- 
ered Lake Michigan and explored the adjacent waterways. 

Father Allouez. — A Jesuit missionary, who in 1666 discovered 
Lake Superior and penetrated far into the regions south and west of it. 
He is also credited with having found a canoe route to the Hudson Bay 
country. 

JIarquetie and Joliet. — Accounts by Father Allouez and others led 
two Jesuit priests, Marquette and Joliet, to explore the western 
wilderness. Ascending the Fox river, they portaged to the Wisconsin 
and then floated down this stream to the Mississippi. For hundreds of 
miles these daring Frenchmen followed the great river until at last 
they reached the mouth of the Arkansas. Here they stopped and re- 
traced their route for fear of falling into the hands of the Spaniards. 
This time the party ascended the Illinois river, making their way, by 
way of Lake Michigan, back to the settlements on the St. Lawrence. 
Joliet and Marquette were the first white men to traverse the region of 
the middle Mississippi. 

LaSalle. — Having received permission from Louis IV to occupy 
and explore the valley of the Mississippi, LaSalle, in the spring of 
1682. began his famous trip dow^n that river. "Weeks later he reached 
the Gulf of Mexico and took possession of the entire river basin in the 
name of France, calling the country Louisiana. LaSalle seems to have 
been the first Frenchman to conceive the plan of holding the whole 
IMississippi valley and the Lake regions by means of military posts. 
Having completed the long wearisome journey back to Quebec, he set 
sail for France, where he hoped to obtain aid in planting a colony in 
the Mississippi delta region. With a fleet of four ships La Salle a 
short time later arrived in the Gulf of Mexico, but failing to find the 
mouth of the Mississippi, landed on the coast of Texas and there built 
a small fort. Contentions arose among the men and finally LaSalle 
was murdered by two of his own countrymen. 

Iberville. — A French naval officer who was sent to carry out the 
great work begun b.y the ambitious LaSalle. Safely reaching the 
mouth of the Mississippi, he ascended the stream for some distance 
but found no suitable place for a colony. He then built a settlement 
at Biloxi on the Gulf about 1700. A few years later a colony was 
planted at Mobile. Bienville in 1718 founded New Orleans. 

13 



ENGLISH EXPLORATION. 

Although England had sent out the Cabots to explore the New 
World even before the last of the voyages of Columbus, yet for almost 
a century little effort was made by the British to dispute Spain's 
supremacy in America. The reign of Elizabeth, marking as it did 
the completion of the Reformation in England, brought with it not 
only internal peace, a great revival of industry at home and activity 
on the sea, but also a desire for expansion, which was soon to result in 
an era of colonization in the New World. The destruction of the Span- 
ish Armada in 1588 freed England from a menace of long standing 
and was the beginning of the end of Spanish dominion on the sea. 
From that day North America was open to colonization with little 
danger of hindrance from the Spanish. 

Below is presented a brief outline of the work of the more import- 
ant of the English explorers and sea rovers. 

The Cahots. — In 1497, Henry VII of England, disregarding the 
"Line of Demarcation," sent John and Sebastian Cabot, two Italian 
navigators, to explore what was then b(4ieved to be a part of Asia. 
The Ca])ots landed in southeastern Canada and later explored the coast 
as far south as Platteras. The Cabots are credited with having been 
the first to reach the mainland of North America, and on their voyages 
England, years later, based her claim to North America. 

Sir Ilumphrfy Gilhcrt. — An English navigator and explorer. lie 
became interested in the search for a route to India and in 1578 re- 
ceived a commission from Queen Elizabeth to conduct an expedition. 
On his first expedition he coasted along eastern North America. His 
second voyage was marked by an unsuccessful attemi)t to plant a col- 
ony in Newfoundland. On liis way back to England Gilbert perished 
in a violent storm at sea. 

Sir Francis Drake. — A famous Englisli navigator, known to the 
Spaniards as the "Dragon." He made a number of expeditions to 
America, i)articularly in the region of the "Spanish Main," where he 
intercepted and captured many homeward bound Spanish treasure 
ships. On the most famous of his voyages Drake passed the Straits 
of ]\Iagellan, plundered the coasts of Chile and Peru, captured a Span- 
ish galleon laden with gold, silver and jewels to the value of a million 
dollars, and then, failing to find a nortiiern passage to the Atlantic, 
sailed west across the Pacific and the Indian Oceans, rounded the 
Cape of Good Hope, and at length arrived in England. To him be- 
longs the honor of being the first Englishman to circumnavigate the 
globe (1580). Drake later. played a prominent part in the defeat of 
tile Spanish Armada. 

14 



Sir Walter Raleigh. — A famous Englishman of the Elizabethan 
Period, a half brother of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Raleigh became 
deeply interested in the idea of colonization in America. In 1585 he 
sent out his first colony under Ralph Lane. A preliminary expedition 
sent out under Amandas and Barlowe had chosen Roanoke Island on 
the coast of Virginia as a suitable site for the colony. Lane's colony 
failed to prosper and the homesick settlers were soon carried back to 
England by Drake. These introduced into Europe tobacco and the 
potato. 

In 1587 Raleigh sent out to Roanoke Island a larger colony under 
Governor White. White found it necessary to return to England and, 
due to the attack of the Spanish Armada, three years elapsed before 
he could return to Virginia with a relief expedition. When at 
last help arrived the colony had utterly disappeared, and its fate is 
even to this day a matter of mere conjecture. Raleigh was now forced 
to abandon his scheme of colonization. A few years later he fell into 
disfavor with the English government and finally was beheaded for 
alleged treason. 

Although this first important attempt at English colonization in 
America failed, nevertheless, it paved the way for further attempts, 
and at last made possible the gaining of a firm foothold on the Atlan- 
tic seaboard. 

Martin Frobisher. — One of the greatest of Elizabethan navigators. 
He made three expeditions to the Arctic regions in the latter half of 
the sixteenth century, for the purpose of discovering a northwest pass- 
age to India. He also made an unsuccessful attempt to found a set- 
tlement north of Hudson Bay, 

Bartholemew Gosnolel. — In 1602, with an expedition probably 
equipped by Raleigh, Gosnold explored the New England coast from 
Maine to Buzzards Bay, and returned home with a valuable cargo of 
furs and woods. This expedition led directly to the organization of the 
London Company that later colonized Virginia. Gosnold accompanied 
the expedition to Jamestown in 1607, but died soon after reaching 
America. 

Martin Pring. — In 1603 Bring made a voyage to New England. 
This venture did much to awaken the English to vast possibilities in 
the development of this region. 

George Weymenith. — In 1605 Weymouth explored New England, 
particularly in the region of the Kennebec river, Maine, where he 
made a temporary settlement. He took with him on his return to Eng- 
land several Indians. 

15 



Henry Hudson. — Discovered Hudson Bay in 1610 while in the ser- 
vice of the English. Sailing for the Dutch. in 1609 he explored the 
Hudson river, in an effort to find a way through to India. 

THE THIRTEEN COLONIES. 
Virginia. 

In 1606 two companies were formed in Englnnd, the London Com- 
pany and the Plymouth Company-, for commercial enterprise in 
America. They obtained royal charters enabling each to found a col- 
ony, granting the right to coin money, raise revenue, and to make 
laws, but reserving much poM'er to the king. The Loudon Company 
had permission to plant a colony anywhere on the Atlantic seaboard 
between the thirty-fourth and forty-first parallels of north latitude. 
The Plymouth Company could settle anywhere between the thirty- 
eighth and forty-fifth degrees of north latitude. The settlements of the 
two companies were to be at least a hundred miles apart. 

In December, 1606, the London Company sent out three small 
ships, commanded by Capt. Newport. After a long, stormy voyage the 
expedition reached Virginia and entered Chesapeake Bay. About 
thirty miles up the James river a settlement site was chosen and here 
in 1607 was built Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement 
in America. Wingfield was the first president of the governing council 
of the colony. 

Most of the colonists at Jamestown were gentlemen adventurers, 
ill-fitted to engage in an enterprise in Avhich years of labor werc 
essential to success. In a few months the colony was in a deplorable 
condition, due to homesickness, short rations, malarial fever and con- 
tinual fear of India)i attack. More tlum half of the settlers died before 
the beginning of another j'ear. Fortunately, among the colonists was 
one John Smith, a man of remarkable energy, courage and resourceful- 
ness. He soon assumed control of the colony, saved the little band 
from starvation by obtaining food from the Indians, and, by keeping 
the men at work, laid the foundation for future prosperity. After 
1608 new colonists arrived from time to time and Jamestown began 
to take on an air of permanence. 

In 1609 a new charter was granted Virginia, by which the local 
council was abolished, being superseded by a governor, and by which 
the bounds of the colony were enlarged. Before the new Governor, 
Lord Delaware, could reach the colony, the settlers were again in 
straits for food. This is known as the "Starving Time" (1610). 

16 



Only the opportune arrival of Delaware with a large company and 
an abundance of supplies prevented the abandoning of the whole en- 
terprise. Lord Delaware soon returned to England, sending out Sir 
Thomas Dale as his deputy. Dale, though harsh and tyrannical, was 
a man of great ability and strength of character. Under his masterful 
guidance the colony made rapid progress. He introduced a number of 
radical reforms, among which was the partial abolishing of the com- 
munal system of living, which had for its effect the stimulation of 
industry. 

A third charter was granted Virginia in 1612. This charter added 
to the colony the Bermudas, gave the company more liberal powers of 
governing, in fact, made it practically self-governing. The company 
did not immediately extend this right to its colonists, however. Under 
the unscrupulous Governor Argall, successor to Dale, the colony re- 
ceived a serious set back. In 1619 the company sent out Sir George 
Yeardley, with powers to call an assembly of settlers. Thus in 1619 
there came into existence the Virginia House of Burgesses, the first 
representative assembly in America. In this same year occurred two 
other highly important events — the introduction of negro slavery, and 
the coming of ninety young women to be wives of the colonists. 

Virginia's most destructive Indian war occurred in 1623. Led by 
a son of the famous Powhatan, the Indians massacred nearly four 
hundred of the whites and earned the war to the very gates of James- 
town. In 1644 a second uprising resulted in the complete overthrow 
of Indian power in the region. 

In 1624 Virginia lost its charter and became a royal province. 
In reality very little change was made in the government of the 
colony, since the people retained their assembly and the governors were 
merely made answerable to the king instead of to the company. With 
the rise of Puritan control in England Virginia remained steadfastly 
loyal to the Royalist Party. The trimnph of Cromwell caused an 
exodus of Cavaliers from England to the colony. These new settlers 
were of far better class than the original colonists. 

Sir William Berkely, the most noted of all the colonial governors 
of Virginia, held office from 1642 to 1677, with the exception of a few 
years under the Commonwealth. Berkely served his royal masters well 
but had little real sympathy with the colonists, and recklessly sacrificed 
their interests. Popular government in Virginia now suffered a long 
eclipse, and the latter half of Berkeley's tenn of office is marked by 
a succession of extortions, conspiracies, unjust laws, and all the kinds 
of political and economic tyranny that are attendant on mal-adrainis- 
tration. 

17 



At last, in what is known as Bacon's Rebellion (1676), the peo- 
ple rose in open revolt, clue to the failure of Berkeley to protect the 
colony from Indian massacre. Led by a young planter named Bacon, 
several hundred enrag:ed colonists marched on Jamestown. The gov- 
ernor fled before the armed band and took refuge on the PJastern 
Shore of Virginia, leaving Jamestown to be burned by Bacon and his 
followers. The sudden death of Bacon threw his followers into a 
panic and they dispersed, whereupon Berkeley returned to the site of 
Jamestown and wreaked terrible vengeance on the friends of Bacon. 
At last Charles II, tiring of Berkeley's despotic rule in America, re- 
called him, to the lasting benefit of Virginia. 

Since tobacco culture and commerce were the basis of prosperity 
in Virginia, the Navigation Laws, which were first enforced about 
1660, were particularly irksome. Yet, despite this the colony 
flourished, and built up an extensive trade. Interest in education was 
greatly stimulated by the establishing, in 1693, of William and Mary 
College, the second institution of higher learning founded in America. 
From the beginning of the eighteenth century, the colonial history of 
Virginia differs little from that of the thirteen colonies as a whole, and 
may he studied as such. 

]\Iassachusetts. 

The Plymouth Company, chartered in England in 1606, for the 
purpose of colonizing northern Virginia, followed the example of the 
London Company and as early as 1607 sent out a colony under 
Popham, which settled on the Kennebec in Maine. One severe winter, 
however, broke uj) the colony and the company never sent another. 

In 1620 the Plymouth Company was reorganized under the name 
of the Council for New England, and a few years later it granted a 
land patent to a number of i)rominent Puritans, who settled IMassa- 
chusetts Bay Colony. 

In the meantime, however, a religious sect, known as Sejiaratists, 
became interested in establishing a colony in America. A band of 
Separatists calling themselves Pilgrims had taken refuge in Holland, 
where they were free from religious persecution. Not finding Hol- 
land to their liking, some of the bolder of these determined to seek 
religious freedom in America. They secured from the London Com- 
pany a patent to lands located somewhere within the bounds of the 
second charter of that company. Having borrowed £5,000, the Pil- 
grims fitted out a small expedition and, in 1620, set sail for the Plud- 
son river country. After a stormy three months' voyage in the May- 
flower, they reached Cape Cod, liutidreds of miles from their desired 

18 



harbor. It was late in the fall and a New England winter was just 
setting in, so it was determined that the settlement be made nearby. 

Since they had received no authority to settle in that region, the 
Pilgrims were under no fixed government ; therefore they drew up a 
brief set of laws, or constitution, for the governing of the colony, known 
as the "Mayflower Compact." John Carver was chosen the first 
governor. Choosing a place called Plymouth, which had been named 
by John Smith years before while exploring and mapping the coast 
of New England, the Pilgrims landed and set about building huts for 
the winter. Great numbers of the colonists died during this first win- 
ter, among whom was the governor, but their lofty purpose and in- 
domitable courage remained unshaken. The few Indians in the neigh- 
borhood proved friendly and there was little work for Miles Standish, 
the colony's military leader. After the death of Carver, William 
Bradford was elected governor and administered affairs ably for thirty 
years. Plymouth as a distinct colony came to an end in 1691 when it 
was combined with the Massachusetts Bay Colony, which had become 
the dominant colony in Massachusetts. During its entire existence Ply- 
mouth never had a charter or a royal governor. The Pilgrims, unlike 
the early Virginians, were admirably fitted to meet the hardships of 
life in the wilderness and to establish in the New World the great 
principle of a church free from governmental influence. 

In 1628 the first Puritan colony in New England was established 
at Salem under John Endicott. The Puritans in many ways were less 
radical non-conformists than were the Separatists. For the most part, 
the members were of a more prosperous class of English society and 
included many wealthy and influential Englishmen. Having received 
a royal charter in 1629, the main body of Puritans, numbering over a 
thousand, came out to New England in 1630 and established Massa- 
chusetts Bay Colony, settling at Boston and in the adjacent region. 
John Winthrop was chosen governor. The Puritan towns already in 
existence in this region were soon absorbed in the rapidly growing col- 
ony. It had been intended by the British government that the seat of 
government of the Massachusetts Bay Colony remain in England, but 
the stockholders of the company had immigrated to America and had 
very shrewdly brought their charter with them. This practically made 
Massachusetts sel f -go verning. 

Supplemented by a code of laws called the "Body of Liberties," 
the charter formed the foundation for popular government. The office 
of governor was made elective and laws were for the most pan en- 
acted by legislative assemblies whose members were chosen by the 
democratic system of town meetings. Government and religion were 

19 



closely united and radical departures were made from the Angrlican 
form of worship. ^linisters were supported ])y public taxation and 
had remarkable influence in all public affairs. 

Although the Puritans had come to America for religious liberty, 
they soon interpreted it to mean religious freedom for their own sect 
only. People who differed from the established religion or criticized 
the clergy were strongly repressed. Quakers particularly were subject 
to bitter persecution. The uncompromising sternness of Puritan char- 
acter and mode of living led many to set up settlements outside of the 
jurisdiction of IMassachusetts. 

Since the New England colonists were found to a great extent in 
towns and villages, it was poSv^ble for a system of education to develop 
under favorable circumstances. Harvard College, the oldest institu- 
tion for higher learning in the United States, was established as early 
as 1636. 

In 1648 a league, known as the New England Confederacy, was 
formed, embracing colonies of IMassachusetts, Connecticut, and New 
Hampshire, and organized for the three-fold purpose of protecting 
the colonists from the Dutch, the Indians and the French. This con- 
federacy was of the utmost importance to New England Avhen years 
later, 1675, the long dreaded King Philip's Indian war broke out. 
Tlie whites could hardly have weathered this long and destructive con- 
flict liad it not been for tlie hearty cooperation of the various New 
England towns. As it was, nearly a thousand whites lost their lives 
and at least twenty towns were destroyed. 

^Massachusetts, having made in various ways too great a sliow of 
independence, lost her charter in 1684. When the Duke of York be- 
came James II, he made Edmund Andros governor over all of New 
England, although his control was more nominal than real. "When 
AVilliam and Mary ascended the English throne, Andros was thrown 
into prison and for a time Massachusetts was governed under tlie old 
cliarter of 1629. Royal governors soon regained control, however, and 
Massachusetts remained a kind of modified royal province until tlie 
Revolution, The famous witchcraft cases, a product of Puritan nar- 
row-mindedness and superstition, created a considerable sensation in 
the colony about 1692. 

During the eighteenth century the colonial history of Massaelin- 
setts merges to a great extent with that of the New England colonies 
as a whole and will 1h> dealt with as such. 

Connecticut. 
As early as 1623 tlie Dutch built a fort near the mouth of the 
Connecticut, and laid claim to the fertile valley of that river. For 

20 



thirty years thereafter they disputed with the English their rights to 
the region. 

The first English settlement Avas established at Windsor in 1633 
by colonists from Plymouth colony in Massachusetts. Two years later 
a settlement was started at Saybrook by Lord Say and Seal. The 
principal settlements, however, were made by men from Massachusetts 
led by Rev. Thomas Hooker and a son of Governor Winthrop. Hooker 
and his flock built towns at Hartford, AVethersfield, and other points. 
Rev. John Davenport was instrumental in founding New Haven, Mil- 
ford, Stamford, and other settlements on the northern shores of Long 
Island Sound. 

While the early settlers in the valley of. Connecticut were endan- 
gered somewhat due to proximity to the Dutch, the greatest menace 
to their safety was the hostility of the Indians. The Pequot tribe had 
long been trying to form an alliance of the nearby tribes, but Roger 
Williams of Rhode Island was miccessful in inducing the powerful 
Narragansett tribe not to join. Consequently, in the Pequot Indian 
War of 1687, the Pequots were practically exterminated. For a time 
the menace of a general Indian war in New England was averted. 

In 1662 the younger Winthrop secured a royal charter for Con- 
necticut from Charles II, the most liberal that had yet been given. 
The charter included the New Haven colony, which for a time strongly 
resisted the effort to make it a part of the rest of Connecticut. 

Scarcely had New England begun to recover from tlie terrible 
effects of King Philip's War before the liberties of the colonies were 
menaced from another direction. Under James II the British govern- 
ment revoked the charters and made Andros governor of all of New 
England. Andros met difficulty in discharging his new duties, par- 
ticularly in Massachusetts and Connecticut. Tradition has it that the 
people of Connecticut secreted their charter in a hollow oak, where it 
remained for several years. With the overthrow of Andros, the colony 
of Connecticut again became self-governing and practically remained 
so until the Revolution. 

Rhode Island. 

Rhode Island was settled in 1636 by Roger Williams, a fugitive 
from Massachusetts. Williams had incurred the displeasure of the 
Massachusetts officials because of insistence in the matter of religious 
toleration and because of his outspoken criticism of king and clergy. 
The region around Narragansett Bay was purchased from the Indians 
and Providence was founded. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, another exile, 
soon came to the colony. The settlements of Portsmouth, Warwick and 

21 



NeM^port were founded, and Rhode Island grew rapidly. In 1644 
Williams secured a charter for tlie colony. Another and more liberal 
one was obtained in 1663, which embodied the principles of religious 
freedom. 

New Hampshire, 

New Hampshire was included in a grant of land made in 1622 by 
the Council for New England to Gorges and Mason. A settlement 
called Little Harbor was made in 1623 near the mouth of the 
Piscataqua. A little later Dover was founded, ami in 1638 Exeter. 
The people of New Hampsliire soon accepted the jurisdiction of 
Massachusetts and remained under that government until about 1690. 
New Hampshire then became a royal province, the governor and coun- 
cil being appointed by the crown and the assembly elected by the 
people. Due to the fact that the INIason heirs claimed the rights to the 
land, thus causing disputes and litigation with the settlers, prospective 
colonists were repelled and New IIami)shire grew very slowly. 

The heirs of Gorges, whose grant embraced IMaine, finally ceded 
their claims to Massachusetts and ]\Iaine remained a j)art of that 
colony until after the Revolution. Vermont was claimed by both New 
Hampshire and New York. There was much dispute over what were 
known as the "Ncm^ Hampshire Grants,'' and the determination of 
the people in the region to conduct their affairs for themselves at 
length prevailed. Vermont was the first state to be added to the origi- 
nal thirteen after the Revolution. 

New York. 

For the first forty years of its existence, the history of the colony 
that later became New York is practically a record of the Dutch in 
America. Henry Hudson, an English navigatoi' in the employ of the 
Dutch East India Company, was sent to seek a nortliwest i^assage to 
the China seas. Iliulson sailed down the New England coast and in 
1609 entered the beautiful river soon to be called the Hudson. A 
careful exploration of the river as far north as Albany failed to re- 
veal the long sought passage, so Hudson returned to Holland with liis 
report on the region. 

As early as 1614 a trading pest was established on Manliattan 
Island and a year or two later another was built in New Jersey. In 
1623 the newly oi'ganized Duteh West India Company sent out 
colonists, some of whom settled on Manhattan, while the others estab- 
lished Fort Orange, now Albany. The Dutch now laid claim to the 
region from Chesapeake Bay to Cape Cod. Peter ]\Iinuit, the first 



Dutch colonial governor, arrived in New Netherlands in 1626 and 
immediately pnrehascd ]\Ianhattan Island of the Indians. Thus began 
New Amsterdam, later to be called New York City. The government 
of New Netherlands was very similar to the government of Virginia 
before the House of Burgesses. To encourage colonization great grants 
of land along the Hudson were made to wealthy Hollanders under 
what was called the "Patroon System." 

With the recall of Minuit, comes a long period of misrule in 
New Netherlands under such governors as Van Twiller, Kieft and 
Peter Stuyvesant. Stuyvesant was the last and most famous of the 
Dutch governors. A self-willed, obstinate old man of choleric temper, 
he had little sympathy with democracy and no power to gauge pub- 
lic opinion. Both banks of the Delaware were claimed by the Dutch, 
so in 1655 Stuyvesant drove out the Swedes and exercised control over 
the region. 

The English claimed New Netherlands on the ground of the Cabot 
discoveries. Charles II now gave the entire country from Connecticut 
to Delaware to his brother, the Duke of York, ignoring the claims of 
the Dutch colony. Captain Nicolls was sent out with a small fleet and 
several hundred British soldiers to take possession of New Nether- 
lands. Appearing before New Amsterdam in 1664, Nicolls demanded 
the surrender of the city. In vain Stuyvesant urged his stolid country- 
men to rise in its defense, but his colonists weary of tyrannical govern- 
ment and favoritism, were ready for a change. Nicolls' demand was 
at length complied with and New Netherlands was surrendered vnih- 
out bloodshed. Thus by 1664 England had made good her claims to 
the Atlantic seaboard, and from Maine to the Carolinas extended un- 
broken a line of English colonies. 

The transition from Dutch to English rule in New Netherlands 
was gradual. A code of laws, known as the "Duke's Code," was 
framed, modeled largely after government in New England. This 
plan did not prove permanent, however, as it provided too sparingly 
for popular government. Under Governor Dongan the duke granted 
the people an assembly. This representative assembly adopted a 
declaration of rights known as the ' ' Charter of Liberties. ' ' The Duke 
of York became James II of England about this time, and the new king 
refused to sign the ' ' Charter of Liberties. ' ' New York was now made 
a royal province, and Andros was sent to govern the colony as con- 
solidated with New England and New Jersey. 

The fall of James II, by the Revolution of 1688, occasioned the 
fall of Andros in New York. The colony was for two years governed 
by Jacob Leisler. At length Sloughter, the new governor arrived and 

23 



Leisler was thrown into prison charged with being an usurper. 
Sloughter was a weak and vacillating man and at length was induced 
to sanction the execution of Leisler, which was little else than political 
murder. 

Despite frequent internal disturbances, the province of New York 
grew steadily until the Revolution, due to its wonderful natural 
advantages. 

New Jersey. 

The first settlements in New pJersey were made by the Dutch 
coincident with the founding of New Netherlands, but the real history' 
of the colony begins with the occupation of the territor^^ by the Eng- 
lish in 1664. The Duke of York quickly disposed of the province to 
two of his friends, Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. Carteret 
made his first settlement at Elizabeth, and a large number of Puritans 
from New England settled at Newark and adjacent towns. A form 
of government known as the "Concessions" was granted, carrying 
with it religious liberty to Englishmen, providing for a governor, a 
council, and an assembly of twelve to be chosen by the people. The 
constant quarrels between the proprietors and their colonists led 
Berkeley to sell his interest to the Quakers. In 1676 New Jersey was 
divided into East and West Jersey. Carteret retained East Jersey 
and the Quakers West Jersey. Two wholly separate governments were 
now set up. 

The first important settlement in West Jersey was made by the 
Quakers at Burlington. Of the two sections, the government of West 
Jersey was far milder than that of East Jersey where the Puritans 
held sway. With the accession of James II East Jersey and West 
Jersey were reunited to form one colony and the proprietors lost their 
rights. In 1702 New Jei'sey became a distinct royal province. 

New Jersey's poi)ulation was, for the most part, English; and 
by 1760, the inhabitants numbered about 75,000. Practically the en- 
tire colony was engaged in agricultural jjursuits. Protected as it was 
from the perils of frontier life, it grew rapidly. 

DEr.AWARE. 

Delaware was first claimed by the Dutch by right of the discovery 
of Hudson, next by the Swedes, who made the first jiermanent settle- 
ment, and finally it came into possession of the English. 

The Dutch under DeVries made an unsuccessful attempt to 
colonize in 1631, but on the coming of the Swedes in 1638. they found 
the region unoccupied. The Swedes settled on the site of Wilmington 

24 



and in the adjacent county. John Printz, one of the early governors, 
showed such aggi'essive ability that for a time it seemed as if the 
Scandinavians might acquire permanent holdings in America. The 
Swedish government, however, failed to support properly its colony 
in the face of the rapidly growing Dutch menace from New Amster- 
dam. The Swedes were soon overawed by a force under the blustering 
Stuyi'-esant and New Sweden became a part of New Netherlands. 
The people were permitted to retain their land and continued to 
prosper under the new government. 

The conquest of New Amsterdam in 1664 included Delaware, 
which now became the property of the Duke of York. In 1682 Dela- 
ware was sold to William Penn, and in the same year was annexed to 
Pennsylvania and known as the ' ' Three Lower Counties. ' ' The colony 
secured a separate legislature in 1702 under a eliarter granted by 
Penn. From that time until the Eevolution, the history of Delaware 
was identified with that of Pennsylvania. 

Pennsylvania. 

During the time of Charles II, the religious sect in England 
known as Quakers was bitterly persecuted. Penn and other influential 
leaders of the sect had not met with marked success in their attempt 
to colonize in New Jersey. At William Pemi's request the king 
granted him a tract of forty thousand square miles in America west of 
the Delaware in payment of a debt owed to the Penns. In honor of 
William Penn 's father, Admiral Penn, the tract was called ' ' Pennsyl- 
vania." Pennsylvania was to be a refuge for Quakers, but there was 
to be real religious toleration, for other denominations were not ex- 
cluded by the proprietor. The boundaries of the colony became the 
subject of serious dispute, due to the indefinite wording of the charter. 
The boundary line between Maryland and Pennsylvania was not satis- 
factorily fixed until 1767 when two famous English surveyors. Mason 
and Dixon, completed their survey. Years later the Llason and Dixon 
line was to have remarkable significance in American history. 

Three ship loads of emigrants were sent out to Pennsylvania in 
1681 and a year later Penn himself voyaged to his colony. Delaware 
had been purchased to give an outlet to the sea, and in that region 
tlie first colonists settled. Penn on his arrival proceeded farther up 
tlie Delaware and laid out Philadelphia for his capital city. A few 
months later he made his famous treaty with the Delaware Indians, 
and laid the basis for a lasting peace between the red men and his 
settlers. 

25 



Early in 1683 the legislature of the colony met in Philadelphia. 
The proprietor presented a new form of government, giving most of 
the power of lawmaking into the hands of the people, represented by 
a council and an assembly. Penn a few years later practically trans- 
ferred all his powers to the people. 

Philadelphia had phenominal growth. In the four years follow- 
ing its founding it surpassed in population New York, which had 
been founded sixty years before. The growth of the colony as a whole 
was more rapid than that of any other of the thirteen colonies. Its 
thrifty Quaker population was augmented by the arrival, early in the 
eighteenth century, of German Protestants, who settled in the southern 
and eastern tiers of counties. The descendants of these worthy col- 
onists have frequently been spoken of in later years as "Pennsylvania 
Dutch." Even greater was the influx of Scotch-Irish Presbyterians of 
sturdy stock, who were well fitted to endure the hardships of frontier 
life. These for the most part settled in the central and mountainous 
portions of the state. Many thousands of these Scotch-Irish followed 
the trend of the valleys of the Blue Ridge and AUeghenies southward 
to become settlers in the hill regions of Maryland, Virginia and the 
Caroliuas. 

Maryland. 

With the founding of Maryland in 1634 we have the first perma- 
nent proprietary colony in America. Maryland marks one of the 
many attempts to transplant English monarchial institutions in Amer- 
ica; an attempt to introduce limited feudalism on New World soil. 
The result in ^Maryland, as in every other proprietary colony, was 
that democracy early gained a foothold, since the free and unfettered 
mode of living was not conducive to a slavish adherence to established 
political and social customs and institutions. 

The man who conceived the idea of the founding of an English 
colony in America as an asylum for Catholics was George Calvert, 
first Lord of Baltimore ; the actual founder was Cecilius Calvert, his 
son. Charles I had granted to tlie elder Calvert a tract of territory 
bounded on the south by the Potomac and on the north by the 40th 
parallel of north latitude. 

The first settlers reach ^Maryland in 1634. luimbering about three 
hundred. Leonard Calvert a younger brother of Cecilius Calvert, led 
the first expedition and became the colony's first governor. On a 
small island ni'ar the mouth of the Potomac the first settlement was 
nuide and named St. Marys. Maryland grew rapidly although St. 
]\Iarys never became an important city; Aniuipolis was founded a few 
years later and Baltimore early in the eigiiteenth century. ^laryland, 

26 



surrounded as it was by Protestant colonies, was watched with jealous 
eyes. The colony early had trouble with Virginia, particularly with 
Clayborne, a Virginia trader who occupied, at the time of the coming 
of the Catholics, Kent Island in the Chesapeake within the bounds of 
Maryland. Calvert asserted his rights to the region and Clayborne 
was driven out. A much later source of irritation was the constant 
dispute with the Pennsylvanians with respect to the northern bound- 
ary of the colony. 

Maryland is particularly noted for having been the first colony in 
which religious toleration was officially provided for. The Calverts 
had not found it advisable to exclude Protestants from the colony and 
within a decade these became more numerous than the Catholics. 
Clayborne, returning from Virginia about 1645, seriously disturbed 
the peace of Marjdand by what is known as the Clayborne-Ingle 
Rebellion, during which the authority of the Baltimores was temporar- 
ily overthrown. Cecilius Calvert regained control, however, and in 
1649 himself drew up the famous Religious Toleration Act, presumably 
in an effort to affect a compromise between the Catholic and the 
Protestant elements in the colony. 

During the rule of Cromwell the Calverts for a time lost the 
proprietorship, regaining it after the Restoration. Maryland was a 
royal province from 1691 to 1715, although the proprietors were still 
permitted to receive revenues from the colony. The fourth Lord Bal- 
timore, having turned Protestant, had Maryland restored to him, and 
it remained in control of his heirs until the Revolution. 

The Carolinas, 

The colonial histories of North Carolina and South Carolina can 
readily be studied together, since both the Carolinas were included in 
the charter of 1663, both were intended to be governed by the "Grand 
Model, ' ' since they were not separated politically until the end of the 
first quarter of the eighteenth century, and since their histories run 
parallel for years. 

The first settlements in North Carolina were made by Virginians 
on the Chowan and Roanoke rivers in the Albermarle district. A few 
years later a settlement was founded by New Englanders on the Cape 
Fear river. In the meantime, 1663, Charles II granted to eight noble- 
men the territory south of Virginia as far as the 29th parallel of north 
latitude. A plan of government was provided, known as the "Grand 
Model," draMTi up by the famous English philospher, John Locke. 
It provided for a system of feudal government under which the peo- 

27 



plf would be liardly more than serfs or retainers to the earls and 
barons who were to own the land. Most of the settlers of the Carolinas 
had found even the other colonial grovernnients too oppressive and had 
migrated to the region south of Virginia with a view to gaining a 
greater amount of freedom. It was inevitable that such a form of 
government would not meet %vith their approval or support ; so after 
twenty years of futile attempts to enforce the "Grand ]\Iodel," the 
whole plan was abandoned. The colony did not then prosper, how- 
ever, due to thieving and incompetent governors, many settlers of a 
lawless or worthless class, and the fact that the Navigation Laws 
greatly interfered with a lucrative trade with New England. In 1693 
the population. was but half what it had been fifteen years before. 
A settlement had been made on the Ashley river in what is now South 
Carolina. All colonies in the Carolinas were now combined and condi- 
tions slowly improved. In 1729, all proprietors having sold their 
interests to the crown, North and South Carolina were separated, and 
each was henceforth a royal colony. The people of South Carolina 
from the very first had had a greater share in government than had 
their northern neighbors. Charleston soon became the greatest port in 
the Soutli because of having the best harbor in the region. Like North 
Carolina, South Carolina was ravaged from time to time by destructive 
Indian wars, particularly with tlie Tuscaroras. The Spaniards in 
Florida, too, were constantly mefiacing the safety and the commerce of 
the South Carolinians. French Huguenots and German Protestants, 
who had settled in great numbers in the Carolinas, proved valuable 
additions to the population of the colonies. 

Georgia. 

Tlie colony of Georgia, founded in 1732. Avas the last of the 
original thirteen colonies to be establislied. The leader of the enter- 
prise was James Oglethorpe, a noted English soldier and statesman, 
and a man of high philanthropic spirit. A charter was gi'anted for a 
period of years to a board of trustees for the lands between the 
Savannah and Altamaha rivers. Tlie colony was founded with a four- 
fold objective : 

(1.) To i)rovide for members of the unfortunate debtor class in 
England an o])portunity to begin life anew; (2) to provide a refuge 
for perseeiited Protestants of Eiu'ope ; (3) to provide a sort of buffer 
state to be a military barrier between the Carolinas and Spanish 
Florida; and (4) to establish a colony for oonunereial and agricultural 
enterprise. The govennnent of the colony was marked by three funda- 



mental principles ; there was to be no slavery, mm was to be excluded, 
and tliere was to be complete religious toleration. 

The first settlement was made at Savannah in 1733. Besides 
colonists' from England, Austrian Protestants, German ^Moravians, 
Scotch Highlanders, and French Huguenots soon built up to^^^ls 
nearby. John Wesley, the founder of Methodism came out as a 
missionary. 

The Spanish in Florida having become troublesome, Oglethorpe 
led an unsuccessful expedition against St. Augustine. A few months 
later a Spanish force made an attack on Georgia, but Oglethorpe by 
skilful strategy, caused it to fail in its purpose to capture Savannah. 

Despite its apparently favorable beginning Georgia did not at 
first prosper. The colonists failed in their attempt at silk-worm cul- 
ture because of the unfavorable climatic conditions. The exclusion of 
negro slavery prevented successful competition with the Carolinas, 
where slaverj^ was an established institution. The prohibition put on 
alcoholic liquors handicapped the Georgians in their trade with the 
"West Indies, where rum was a staple medium of exchange. In 
Georgia, as in the rest of the southern colonies, the lack of educational 
facilities was deplorable. 

At length, the proprietors, discouraged and disappointed in both 
moral and pecuniary returns for their investment, turned over the 
colony to the British Crown. Georgia now became a royal province 
and remained as such until the Revolution, With the removal of 
restrictions such as had been placed by the proprietors, the colony 
grew rapidh' and by 1775 had a population of over fifty thousand. 

THE INTERCOLONIAL WARS. 

With the accession of William and Mary to the English throne, 
there began in America a series of intercolonial wars that lasted, with 
intervals of peace, for the next three-quarters of a century. These 
wars were between the French and English colonists and were destined 
to end with the English supreme in America. The first three of the 
wars did not originate in the New World ; they were but reflections of 
far greater conflicts raging at the time in Europe between the mother 
countries. The last of the intercolonial wars, the French and Indian 
War, had its origin on this side of the water and was caused by bound- 
ary disputes between the English and French, concerning their posses- 
sions in North America. It was closely connected, however, with the 
Seven Years War in which France and England participated. 

A glance at the situation in America and a brief comparison of 
the belligerents is necessary to an understanding of the ultimate re- 

29 



suits of these wars. The English, for the most part, had come to 
America to make homes for themselves where they should be free from 
political or religious persecution. The objects of the French were to 
build up a great colonial empire with military goverinnent, to 
Christianize the natives, and to gain wealth from the fur trade. The 
English had been left by their home government to develop themselves 
and conse(inently became strong and self-reliant. The French gov- 
erinnent had developed a paternal attitude towards its colonists to the 
extent that they were unable to stand alone. The English were con- 
centrated in a region of relatively small area. The French, far infer- 
ior in ])oint of numbei-s, were scattered from Acadia to New Orleans, 
but had the advantage of better organization. Tlie English were, to a 
great extent, tolerant of all religious beliefs ; the French excluded all 
except Catholics from their domains. Toward the Indian the English- 
man adopted a policy of tolerance but did not attempt to conceal the 
fact that he considered the native an inferior being ; the Frenchman in 
many instances lowered himself to the level of his ally the Indian, took 
for his wife an Indian squaw, and raised a family, not of Frenchmen, 
but of barbarians. It was natural then that the Indian should make 
war on the side of the French, but his aid was more apparent than 
real. 

It is not difficult to perceive from the above the elements of weak- 
ness in the French in America, nor does one have to look far to find the 
germ of greatness in the English speaking colonists. The greatest ad- 
vantage the French had was their centralized organization ; the great- 
est weakness the English had was their lack of cooperation due to 
lack of political unity and to distrust and jealousy. Below is pre- 
sented a very brief outline of the events of each of the Intercolonial 
Wars. 

King William's War (1689-1697). — In Europe known as the 
"War of the Palatinate." In America King William's War consisted 
chiefly of French and Indian raids on the New England settlements 
and retaliatoi-y measures on the part of the English colonists. Dover, 
New IIam{)shire, was destroyed; Pemaquid, JMaine, met a similar fate. 
In 1690 a party of French and Indians burned the town of 
Schenectady, New York, massacreing more than sixty of the 
inluibitants. The English, now thoi-oughly aroused, sent a land force 
to attack Montreal and a fleet to strike at Quebec. Frontenac, gov- 
ernor of Canada, easily repelled the attack on Montreal, and Sir 
William Phipps, who commanded the fleet sent to the St, Lawrence, 
soon abandoned the enterprise without having struck an effective blow. 
Wing William's War was ended by the Treaty of Ryswick, wJiich 

30 



brought about no changes in the holdings of the French and English in 
America. 

Queen Aiuie's War (1702-1714). — Known in Europe as the ''AVar 
of the Spanish Succession. ' ' Queen Anne 's War, similar in many re- 
spects to the war that preceded it, was the most important of the first 
three Intercolonial wars, for by it England acquired substantial addi- 
tions to her territory in America. Deerfield, Maine, was destroyed by 
French and Indians, and a few years later Haverhill, Massachusetts. 
After two unsuccessful attempts on Port Eoyal, Acadia, the town was 
finally taken by the English in 1710. Port Royal was henceforth 
called Annapolis and Acadia became Nova Scotia. The English again 
determined to destroy the stronghold of the French in America. An 
expedition of twelve thousand men sailed under Sir Hovedon Walker 
for the St. Lawrence, while a force of twenty-five hundred men under 
Colonel Nicholson started for Montreal by way of Lake Champlain. 
Walker, like Phipps, lacked the ability and courage necessary to con- 
duct successfully such an enterprise. A dense fog in the St. Lawrence 
led to the loss of several ships and a thousand men, whereupon Walker 
refused to go further and brought the remainder of his fleet home. 
By the treaty of Utrecht, 1713, the British gained permanent posses- 
sion of Acadia, Newfoundland, and the Hudso-n Bay territory. This 
was the opening wedge for the fall of New France in America. 

King George's War (1744-1748). — Known in Europe as the 
"War of the Austrian Succession." After Queen Anne's War came 
a lull which the French used to advantage in strengthening their hold 
on Canada and the Mississippi Valley. On Cape Breton Island in the 
Gulf of St. Lawrence was built Louisburg, the most imposing fortress 
in America. Military posts were established at Kaskaskia, Vincennes, 
and at almost a score of other points in the Mississippi-Ohio region; 
forts were built at Niagara, Detroit, on Lake Champlain, and else- 
where in the North to guard the lake regions. 

King George's War was marked by the visual Indian massacres 
and by one event of far greater importance. Under the leadership of 
William Pepperell of Maine an expedition of New England forces was 
launched against Louisburg, which now guarded the entrance to the 
St. Lawrence. To the astonishment of the French this formidable bar- 
rier was surrendered after having sustained a six weeks' siege. All 
attempts on the part of the French to recover the fortress proved futile. 
However, by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 each European 
Power involved had restored to it what it had possessed before the 
war. Thus, to the righteous indignation of the English colonists in 
America, Louisburg was given back to France. 

31 



The French and Indian War (1754-1763). 

Since the treaty of Aix-la-Cliapelle, like those of Ryswick and 
Utrecht, had failed to settle the question of supremacy for the rival 
claimants to North America, the smolderinpr sparks of hostility were 
soon to be fanned into the conflagration which we know as the French 
and Indian War. The immediate cause of the conflict was the en- 
croacliment of the French on territory claimed by Virginia and other 
English colonies. The Frencli built forts at Presque Isle, the present- 
site of Erie, at LeBoeuf, and at Venango. The governor of Virginia, 
Dinwiddle, sent a messenger in the person of George Washington, to 
make a formal protest to the French commandants in this region. The 
protest having failed to produce the desired effect, the governor, in 
1754, sent a small force under Col. Washington to occupy the region 
where the Allegheny and the Monongahela join to form the Ohio. 
Washington found the French already in possession, beginning work 
on Fort Duqucsne, and was forced to drop back to Great ^Meadows. 
Here he built a rude stockade called Fort Necessity, and here he was 
forced to capitulate after a sliarp skii-mish with tlie French. 

The aggressive attitude on the part of France aroused in the Eng- 
lish colonies, to some extent at least, an appreciation of the danger con- 
fronting the colonists. A colonial conference was held at Albany in 
1754, known as the Albany Congress. Benjamin Franklin presented 
a ])la]i of union, known as the Albany Plan, which provided for a 
president-general of the colonies to be appointed by the Crown, and 
for a council to be elected by the legislatures of the various colonies. 
The plan was rejected, since it met opposition from both the British 
Government and the colonies. Had Franklin succeeded in securing 
the adoption of his ideas, the English would have been spared the 
defeats, due to lack of cooperation, that nuirked the first two or tliree 
years of the French and Indian War. 

Having determined to renew the conflict, the English gradually 
developed a plan of attack that ultimately brought success. There 
follows a list of British military' objectives, sometimes called the "Five 
Objective Points": (1) Fort Duquesne, on the present site of Pitts- 
burg, which controlled the entrance to the Ohio Valley; (2) Ticon- 
deroga and Crown Point, dominating the overland route to Canada 
via Lake Champlain; (3) Forts Niagara and Frontenac on the Great 
Lakes, protecting the French monopoly of fur trade in the Lake 
region; (4) Louisburg on Cape Breton Island, which closed the en- 
trance to the St. Lawrence and furnished a rendezvous from which 
to launch raids against the New England coast; and (5) Quebec and 
^Fontreal, headauarters of New France and the root of French activity 

32 



A force of British regulars was now sent to America to aid the 
Colonial troops. In June, 1755, General Braddock, commanding this 
force, set out from Virginia in his march against Fort Duquesne. 
Braddock was unfamiliar with Indian warfare and campaigning in 
the wilderness. Having lost much valuable time and having impeded 
his force with all manner of useless paraphernalia, he finally arrived 
in the vicinity of Duquesne, only to meet a most disastrous and bloody 
defeat at the hands of the French and their Indian allies. For the 
time being no further attempt was made on the fort. In 1757, how- 
ever, on the approach of General Forbes with a force consisting chiefly 
of Virginians, the fort was evacuated and burned, the French retiring 
into Canada. 

In 1755 occurred the deportation of the Acadians. These French 
settlers were removed from the region because of their repeated refusals 
to swear allegiance to the English and because their continual plotting 
and treachery was a menace to British control of the region. The 
Acadians were taken to various ports along the Atlantic coast and 
there released. 

During 1757, Montcalm, the able commander-in-chief of the 
French forces, advanced southward from Lake Champlain and cap- 
tured Fort William Henry, held by an English force under Colonel 
Munroe. The surrender of the fort was followed by a terrible Indian 
• massacre of the prisoners. 

Under the direction of William Pitt, the new English Premier, a 
large force under General Amherst and Admiral Boscawen was sent 
against Louisburg in 1758. A landing on Cape Breton Island was 
effected, and after weeks of incessant bombardment the great fortress 
fell into the hands of the English, never again to be returned to the 
French. 

A severe defeat sustained by the English under Abercrombie when 
they attempted to capture Ticonderoga was partly offset by Colonel 
Bradstreet's brilliant capture of Fort Frontenac on Lake Ontario. 
With the fall of Frontenac, French communication between Quebec 
and the Ohio Valley was entirely broken. 

In 1759 General Prideaux and Sir William Johnson captured 
Fort Niagara. A little later Ticonderoga and Crown Point were aban- 
doned and occupied by Amherst's forces, while the French retreated 
down the Richelieu River. 

The English now prepared energetically to carry the last of their 
objectives. The fall of Louisburg had prepared the way to Quebec. 
In June, 1759. a great fleet, bearing a force of eight thousand men 
under General Wolfe, entered the St. Lawrence and was soon anchored 

33 



near the city. Against Wolfe was pitted the great French general 
Montcalm. For weeks the armies lay watching each other, ready to 
take advantage of any unexpected opening for attack. At length 
Wolfe found a point where the cliffs could be scaled and the Plains of 
Abraham reached. Having moved his troops to a point above the city, 
he sent them clambering in single file up the winding path to the table- 
land overlooking Quebec. Here occurred the battle of the Plains 
of Abraham, which resulted in the complete defeat of the French. 
Both Wolfe and Montcalm fell mortally wounded and neither lived to 
see the surrender of Quebec, which occurred a few days later. ]\Ion- 
treal soon surrendered to General Amherst, and French dominion in 
America was practically at an end. 

Although the fall of Quebec practically ended the war in America, 
the treaty of peace was not signed until three years later, at the end 
of the Seven Years AVar on the Continent of Europe. The Treaty of 
Paris, signed in 1763, was unique in the magnitude of its land sessions. 
Spain had allied herself with France during the war and had lost 
Cuba and the Philippines. These England gave back to Spain, taking 
Florida in exchange. France ceded to Spain, in compensation for her 
losses, the city of New Orleans and the vast territory known as Louisi- 
ana, lying between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. 
To the English France surrendered the remainder of her American 
possessions, including Canada, tlie Ohio Valley, and all her islands^ 
except St. Pierre and Miquelon, two little islands in the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence. 

Pontiac's War. — ^When the English began to occupy the area 
around the Great Lakes, which had been ceded to them by the French, 
they found the Indians bitterly hostile. Pontiac, probably the ablest 
man of his race, made a plot to exterminate the whites in the region. 
Almost every tribe of the Algonquin family joined his conspiracy. 
The attacks were made simultaneously everywhere, and all English 
posts fell into the hands of the savages except Detroit, Fort Pitt and 
Niagara. The Indians yielded only after a fierce struggle of three 
years. 

CAUSES AND EVENTS LEADING TO THE 
AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 

Causes leading to the American Revolution may readily be divid- 
ed into two classes — remote and immediate causes. It is true that 
"taxation without representation" was a potent factor in bringing on 
the struggle but this expression needs amplification and explanation. 
It seems tliat a separation, sooner or later, of the Colonies from Great 
Britain was inevitable ; there had been at work for years forces that 

34 



must eventually lead to the dissolution of the political union between 
the two peoples. The very environment under which the American 
colonist lived was conducive to the development of a spirit of freedom 
'and self-reliance. The colonists had reached a point in their develop- 
ment where they could govern themselves better than they could be 
governed by a parliament and king almost wholly out of sympathy 
with American ideals, institutions and customs. 

The collapse of French dominion in America freed the colonies 
of a menace of longstanding ; no longer did the colonists feel the need 
of British protection. Furthermore, the campaigns of the Intercol- 
onial Wars had awakened in the colonists a realization of their own 
strength; they had seen the colonial troops stand firm at times when 
the British regulars broke and fled. Cooperation on the part of the 
colonists against the French had done much toward developing a 
spirit of nationalism. The fact that soldiers from New England 
fought side by side with soldiers from Pennsylvania, JMaryland and 
Virginia helped to break down the state of jealousy and distrust so 
prevalent among the colonies, and to pave the way later for union in a 
common cause. Men who were later destined to play a prominent part 
in the affairs of the country were trained to some extent in the science 
of war and had developed certain powers of military leadership. 

Today the English are the most liberal and enlightened colonizers 
in the world. India, Canada, Australia and the African provinces 
have been successfully colonized and governed on the very principles 
for which the American colonists fought during the Revolution. Prior 
to that time, however, the British government looked upon its colo- 
nies as something to be exploited for the sole benefit of the mother 
country. This is Avell illustrated through the medium of the odious 
Navigation Acts. These laws, the first of which had been passed as 
early as the middle of the seventeenth century and supplemented from 
time to time later, gave the colonists their first definite grievance 
against England. In substance, these laws forbade commercial inter- 
course between the American Colonies and foreign countries, except 
such commerce as should be carried on in English ships at English 
rates ; provided for prohibitive duties on various imports ; and prohib- 
ited the development of many kinds of manufacturing in America. 
The Acts fell heavily on the colonies, particularly in the north. At 
first they were not enforced, but when Grenville became head of the 
English government he determined to secure a rigid enforcement of 
the Navigation Acts and thus armed his custom officials with "Writs 
of Assistance," or search warrants empowering them to search private 
homes or storehouses for smuggled goods. This aroused the ire of the 

35 



Auierieans and became the subject of l)itter denunciation on the part 
of such men as James Otis and Patrick Henry. 

More Jm.mediate Causes axd P^vents. 

After the close of the French and Indian War the l^ritish govern- 
ment sought a means of decreasing its enormous war debt. The atten- 
tion of Parliament was naturally turned toward America. Despite the 
eloquent i)lt'adings of sucii friends of the colonies as Bourke, Barre, 
Pitt, Fox and others, it was determined to tax the Americans. In 1765 
Parliament passed the famous Stamp Act. The stamps, ranging wide- 
ly in point of value, were to be placed on newspapers, licenses, deeds, 
legal documents and many other papers. The violent opposition to 
the Act in America was a shock to its promoters. From New England 
to the Carolinas raged the storm of furious denunciation. A Stamp 
Act Congress, responding to a call from IVIassachusetts, met in New 
York and drew up a declaration of riglits and petitioned the king and 
Parliament. Sons of Liberty organized to prevent the enforcing of 
the law, and the opposition, growing in intensity, was marked by riots 
and the burning of such stamps as had reached America. Nor did the 
opposition to taxation without representation lessen even when in 1766 
the Stamp Act was repealed ; for with the repeal was passed the Dec- 
laratory Act, asserting Parliament's right to tax the colonies in all 
cases whatsoever. 

American joy over the repeal of the Stamp Tax was short-lived, 
for the following year Townshend, Chancellor of the Exchequer, 
secured in Parliament the passage of the Townshend Acts laying im- 
port duty on tea, glass, paper, etc., sent to the colonies. This indirect 
method of taxation met with no better success than had the Stamp Tax. 
Parliament centered on tea its efforts to enforce the new acts and pre- 
pared to send a number of shiploads of it to America. 

Meanwhile, the British government, pursuing its policy of main- 
taining a standing army in America, had stationed a number of troops 
in Boston. In 1770 occurred rioting in that city, known as the "Bos- 
ton ]\Iassacre," in which a number of soldiers and civilians lost their 
lives. This affair had naturally the effect of aggravating the ill feel- 
ing throughout tlie colonies. Next, one of the king's reveiuie schoon- 
ers was siezed on the Rhode Island coast by a band of infuriated citi- 
zens and burned. 

Affairs in America were now rapidly approaching a crisis. The 
breach was widening and there were needed but a few more inflamma- 
tory acts on eitlier side to precipitate the conflict. These now occurred 
in rapid succession. 

36 



In 1773 occurred the Boston Tea Party, during which some citi- 
zens of Boston threw into the harbor a cargo of tea, the first to arrive 
after the duty had been laid on that commodity. Similar disorders 
occurred at various other American ports. There follows an outline 
of what are called the ' ' Five Intolerable Acts. ' ' 

Boston Port Bill. — Passed as a result of the Boston Tea Party, 
and providing for the changing of the capital of Massachusetts from 
Boston to Salem, and for the closing of the port of Boston to the com- 
merce of the world. 

Regulating Act. — Suspending the civil government of Massachu- 
setts and placing the colony under martial law. 

Transportation Act. — Providing that persons accused of certain 
crimes of a political nature be transported to England for trial. 

Quartering Act. — Providing that troops be quartered and main- 
tained in the Colonies at the expense of the people. 

Quebec Act. — Giving to Quebec the territory north of the Ohio 
and west of the AUeghenies in an effort to punish the colonists and to 
win favor with the French Catholics of Canada. 

The Colonies now put aside all petty jealousies and united in the 
common cause. Aid was sent to Masachusetts, on which colony the 
king's hand had fallen hea\'iest. Agreements of non-intercourse with 
England were made ; Committees of Safety organized ; troops raised, 
armed and drilled to be ready for any eventuality ; and a call sent 
out to each colony for representation to a Continental Congress. 

First Continental Congress, 1774. — Met in Carpenter's Hall, 
Philadelphia. It was controlled by a number of conservative men who 
advised moderation, and who were determined that nothing should be 
left undone that would secure a redress of grievance by peaceful 
means. A petition was drawn up and sent to the king. After a ses- 
sion of a few weeks Congress adjourned to meet a year later. 

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 

Campaign in New England, 1775-1776. 

By the spring of 1775, several thousand British regulars had 
reached New England, most of whom were quartered in or near Bos- 
ton. More troops were on their way to America and the British felt 
that they had the situation well in hand. Actual hostilities began late 
ill April, when General Gage, the commander of the British forces, 
dispatched from Boston eight hundred regulars under Colonel Smith 
to arrest two famous patriots, Jolm Hancock and Samuel Adams, who 
were in hiding at Lexington. The expedition was to proceed to Con- 
cord, four miles beyond Lexington, to destroy a qiiantity of military 
supplies, collected at that village by the Americans. 

37 



General Gage observed the utmost secrecy in carrying out his 
plans, but liis purpose was thwarted hy the vigihanee of the Americans. 
No sooner had the troops left Boston, late on the night of April 18, 
than the news of their coming was carried far and wide by Paul Re- 
vere and other patriots. Beacon fires flashed from hill top to hill top. 
Hundreds of minute-men responded to the call to arms; Hancock and 
Adams hurriedly left Lexington on their way to Philadelphia, where 
the Second Continental Congress was soon to meet ; stores were hastily 
taken from Concord and secreted in the neighboring forests. "When 
the British reached Lexington at sunrise on the morning of April 19, 
]\Iajor Pitcairn, leading the advance, fouiul himself confronted by 
about forty minute-men under Captain Parker. Ordered to disperse, 
the Americans did so only after several volleys had been fired on each 
side. Thus ocurred the first bloodshed of the Revolution. Colonel 
Smith had become alarmed at the vigorous preparations for battle on 
the part of the Americans and had wisely sent back to Boston for re- 
enforcements. In the meantime, his troops hastened on to Concord, 
which they entered unopposed and destroyed what little they found 
there. Several hundred Americans who had congregated on a neigh- 
boring hill, now grew bolder and engaged in a brisk skirmish with the 
British. Finding his position untenable, Colonel Smith began his 
retreat to Boston, only to find that his troops, fatigued by their long 
march and decimated by the withering fire poured in from the rear 
and the flanks, were fast becoming demoralized. Met ln\ a hail of 
bullets from almost every stone fence, clump of trees, or farm build- 
ing along the road, the British were soon in complete flight, rapidly 
l)ecoming a real race with death. At Lexington they were met by Lord 
Percy with twelve hundred men coming to their rescue, For a time 
Percy held the Americans at bay by means of his field guns, but on 
the British retreat being resumed, the patriots attacked in ever- 
increasing ninnliers. desisting only at niglitfall when the regulars 
reached the outskirts of Boston and gained the protection of the guns 
on the warships in the harbor. The British had lost nearly three hun- 
dred men and the blood of a hundred patriots had been shed. From 
this night began tlie siege of Boston, which continued until the spring 
of 1776. 

The news of tlie l)attle of Lexington and Concord spread far and 
wide, arousing llie people throughout the tliirteen colonies. These rose 
in general rebellion against their rulers and soon nearly every royal 
government in America had fallen. Three weeks after Lexington and 
Concord, Ethan Allen and Scth Warner, leaders of the Green Moun- 
tain Boys of Vermont, seized by surprise the strong fortresses of 

38 



Ticonderoga and Crown Point, which guarded with their great giins 
the watershed between the valleys of the Hudson and St. Lawrence; 

On the very day of the capture of Ticonderoga, the Second Conti- 
nental Congress met in Philadelphia. Most of its members were still 
hopeful of reconciliation between the colonies and the mother country. 
This Congress, like its predecessor, now drafted a new petition to the 
king and sent it to England by special messenger. Addresses were also 
sent to the people of Great Britain, to Ireland, and to Canada. The 
Second Continental Congress, while as yet disclaiming any intention 
of casting off allegiance to Great Britain, recognized the existence of a 
state of war and prepared for its vigorous prosecution. Washington 
was chosen commander-in-chief of the Continental Army, the issue of 
two million dollars in paper money was authorized, provisions were 
made for the organization of a navy, various Colonies were authorized 
to form local governments, and many other matters were attended to. 
Gradually, due to circumstances. Congress was forced to assume most 
of the functions of a national government. This Congress, in fact, sat 
almost continually from 1775 to 1781, when the Congress under the 
Confederation took its place. The work of the Second Congress will be 
touched upon from time to time in the discussion of the war. 

Meanwhile the colonists continued to besiege Boston and were 
under the command of General Ward, pending the arrival of General 
Washington. The army consisted of a few thousand New Englanders, 
poorly armed and even more poorly trained. General Gage now had 
ten thousand well equipped regulars in Boston, and had recovered to 
a great extent from the shock of his losses at Lexington and Concord. 
The American army extended in a great semi-circle of sixteen miles 
from Cambridge to the Mystic river. Gage, to insure the safety of the 
city, now tardily determined to occupy some of the hills overlooking 
Boston. Hearing of his intention. General Ward anticipated him by 
sending Colonel Prescott with a force of twelve hundred men to 
occupy and fortify Bunker Hill. In the darkness the troops occupied 
Breeds Hill instead and immediately began to construct earthworks. 
At daybreak of June 16th the British discovered what was on foot and 
brought their artillery into play. The intense bombardment having 
failed to dislodge the Americans, Gage very foolhardy determined to 
carry the hill by assault. A much better plan would have been to send 
a force to Charleston Neck to cut off the retreat of Prescott 's force and 
eventually to starve it into surrender. Calmly the British set about 
their preparations, and by three o'clock in the afternoon three thous- 
and, under General Howe, had been landed at Charleston and were in 
position to attack. Steadily the redclad columns moved up the hill. 
Not a shot was fired until the British were within a few feet of their 

39 



objective. Then suddenly there burst out the most intense rifle fire all 
along the entire American line. Ag-ain and again the Americans fired, 
until the British broke in disorder and fled down the hill, leaving the 
ground strewn with their dead and wounded. Not fifteen minutes 
elapsed before Howe's men reformed and again dashed up the hill, 
only to meet the same bloody repulse. More than an hour now passed 
before the regulars made their final attempt to take the hill. Smoke 
from the burning village of Charleston concealed from view Howe's 
tired and chagrined troops. At length, the British for the third time 
swept up the slope, to be met as before by the same destructive fire. 
Suddenly, however, the American fire slackened, then ceased. The 
scanty supply of ammunition was exhausted. Leaping over the ob- 
structions, the English engaged the Colonials hand to hand, bayonets 
against clubbed muskets. The contest was now an unequal one, and 
the Americans slowly withdrew, fighting valiantly and stubbornly con- 
testing each bit of ground. As the retreating force crossed Charleston 
Neck the guns from the British warships began to get in their deadly 
work. The battle of Bunker Hill was a costly victory for the king's 
troops, since the British losses were slightly over one thousand, one- 
tenth of whom were officers. American casualties numbered four hun- 
dred and fift.y and were incurred during the retreat. The colonists 
had met the British regulars and had achieved what was. in its moral 
effects, an important victory. The siege of Boston continued. 

Two weeks after the battle of Bunker Hill, Washington arrived at 
Cambridge and reviewed his army. He here met his fellow-officers, 
Greene, Knox, Putnam, Morgan, and others, who were to serve him so 
faithfully during the long struggle. After the battle of Bunker Hill 
the British seemed to overestimate the strength of the American forces 
and General William Howe, who was made commander-in-chief, re- 
mained inactive for months. "Washington used this period of inaction 
to advantage in reorganizing his army, drilling his men and securing 
adequate supplies. 

In the fall of 1775 Congress fitted out an expedition to be under- 
taken against Canada with a view to forcing peace by the capture of 
Montreal and Quebec. This force of about three thousand men was to 
invade Canada by two routes. General Montgomery led two thousand 
men into the valley of the St. Lawrence by way of Lake Champlain, 
while Benodict Arnold with the rest of the force advanced on Quebec 
througli the Maiiu' wildci-ness. ^Montgomery seized Montreal and in 
December joined Arnold before Quebec. On the last day of the year, 
amid a blinding snow-storm, the combined force attacked the city, only 
to be driven back with heavy loss. Montgomery was killed and 
Arnold badly wounded. The fragments of the army suffered horribly 

40 



from exposure, disease and lack of proper food and clothing, and the 
following spring straggled back into New England. This disastrous 
defeat was due chiefly to the poor judgment shown by Congress in 
sending an insufficient force on such a stupendous undertaking. 

Meanwhile, Washington's army before Boston had been reenforced 
by troops from the various colonies and he had about perfected his 
plans for forcing the evacuation of the city. A number of heavy can- 
non had been sent down from Ticonderoga and Crown Point by ox-sled 
during the winter. This artillery now proved of the greatest value to 
the Americans. The British with their usual lack of foresight had 
neglected to occupy Dorchester Heights, an eminence overlooking Bos- 
ton and the harbor. Washington determined to fortify this position, 
so in order to conceal his plans, he ordered a long-range bombardment 
of the city from another point. The British replied in kind and the 
roar of artillery effectually covered the movement of troops to Dor- 
chester Heights on the night of March 4, 1776, and drowned the sound 
of pick and shovel in the frozen ground as the Americans prepared 
their earthworks. On the day following the British became aware of 
the new operations, and despite the lesson of Bunker Hill, determined 
to carry the place by storm. However, a violent gale in the forenoon 
made the harbor too rough for the transport of troops. Within a few 
hours the American position was manifestly too strong to be taken by 
direct attack, so Howe had no alternative other than to evacuate the 
city, since Washington's artillery could batter to pieces it and the 
shipping in the harbor. Under the menace of the American guns 
hurried preparations for withdrawal were made, and before the end of 
the month Howe and his forces, accompanied by nearly two thousand 
loyalists, set sail for Halifax, Nova Scotia. Thus ended the first phase 
of the Revolution. 

The Declaration of Independence. 

The Second Continental Congress, up to the fall of 1775, had re- 
ceived no news of the fate of its petition sent to the king. In October 
word came that the king had not even deigned to receive the petition. 
At the same time came news of the hiring of foreign mercenaries to be 
used against the colonies. It was evident that the king and Parlia- 
ment meant to awe the colonies into submission, but their acts only 
served to deepen the resentment of the patriots. From this moment 
Congress assumed a bolder tone. Committees were appointed to cor- 
respond with foreign nations and the colonies were urged to set up 
governments independent of Great Britain. This change of attitude 
toward England was not confined to (Congress only, but became very 

41 



general throughout the country. Although the first steps toward in- 
dependence had been made by the various colonies. Congress, weighed 
down by the gravity of the situation and by tlie responsibility incident 
to the colossal task of creating a new government, was slow to act. 
Delegates feared to act hastily in the matter and waited until senti- 
ment in their home colonies became crystallized on the question. 

In June, Richard Henry Lee, delegate from Virginia, offered a 
resolution "That these United States are, and of right ought to be, 
free and independent states, and that they are absolved from all 
allegiance to the British crown.'' Lee's resolution was tabled for three 
weeks and a committee appointed to draw up a suitable form of declar- 
ation. Thomas Jefferson was chosen chairman of the committee and 
to him fell the task of writing the document. By July 1st, the neces- 
sary authority to act in the matter had been received by the delegates 
from each colony, so Lee's resolution was again taken up. After a 
short debate, the resolution was passed unanimously by the votes of 
the thirteen colonies. The document written by Jefferson was adopted 
by the Congress on the evening of July 4th. 

Tlie Declaration of Independence expres.sed in concise, forcible 
language America's determination to break off all relations with Great 
Britain, and consisted, for the most part, of an enumeration of the 
political crimes of His Majesty and the grievances of the colonies that 
furnished the basis for their action. The news of the great act was 
spread far and wide and was received with the greatest entliusiasm by 
the people. 

Washington's Campaign in New York and New Jersey, 1776-1777. 

Up to the summer of 1776 the war had been confined to New Eng- 
land, except for an unsuccessful attack of a British fleet on Fort ^foul- 
trie, a little local figliting in Nortli Carolina, and Dunmore's burning 
of Norfolk. The main British force, under Howe had assembled at 
Halifax after the evacuation of Boston. Here it was reorganized and 
here it received heavy rcenforcements. Wasliington, fearing tliat tlie 
next attack would be on New York, anticipated Howe's plan by occu- 
pying the city with his force several weeks before the arrival of the 
British. 

In August the British landed on Staten Island with 30,000 men. 
Washington occujued Brooklyn Ileiglits on Long Island, and 
Manhattan, with hardly more than half as large a force. Half of his 
army was under Putnam on Long Island. Howe attacked Brooklyn 
Heights with 20,000 men, and inflicted a severe defeat on the Ameri- 
cans, capturing part of Putnarii's force under Sullivan. Only Wash- 

42 



iiigton's energy and quickness in perceiving the situation and collect- 
ing boats in the East river, enabled Putnam's troops to reach safety. 
In a dense fog, which concealed their movements from the British, the 
troops escaped to Manhattan Island and joined Washington and the 
main force. 

With the loss of Brooklyn Heights, Washington could no longer 
hold New York. As he was retreating northward on Manhattan and 
before he could leave the island, he was overtaken by Howe. Then oc- 
curred the battle of Harlem Heights, by which Washington checked 
the British long enough to enable his army to escape up the Hudson. 
At White Plains Howe again attacked the Americans, but was beaten 
off. 

Much against the advice of Washington, Congress insisted on 
American garrisons being left at Fort Washington and Fort Lee, 
which guarded the entrance to the Hudson. Fort Washington was 
soon stormed by Howe and forced to surrender; Fort Lee was now 
hurriedly evacuated. Leaving 7,000 men under General Charles Lee 
at North Castle in New York State, Washington moved \nth the rest 
of his army to Hackensack, New Jersey. Lee had been ordered to 
follow the commander-in-chief, but he disobeyed orders and refused to 
move. Thus, on the approach of Howe, Washington was forced into 
flight across New Jersey. He had reached the Delaware before Lee 
showed a disposition to act. On Lee's being taken prisoner by the 
British, his force, now under command of Sullivan, moved with com- 
mendable speed to join the commander-in-chief. Having collected all 
available boats. Washington crossed the Delaware into Pennsylvania, 
just ahead of the pursuing British. General Howe, believing that 
armed rebellion had collapsed, retired to New York, after having dis- 
tributed his force at Trenton, Bordentown, Brunswick and Princeton. 
It was planned to wait until the Delaware froze over and then to re- 
sume a leisurely march to the ''rebel capital" at Philadelphia. New 
Jersey was now held firmly in the grasp of the British. 

Patriot hopes had now reached their lowest stage ; defeat after 
defeat, intrigue, and even treachery, had done much to break down 
the spirit of the soldiers. Congress had lost heart and support for the 
army was not forthcoming from this cjuarter. But it was the dark 
before the dawn. Washington now conceived a brilliant enterprise. 
Learning that a thousand Hessians were stationed at Trenton under 
Colonel Rahl, he determined to recross the Delaware above Trenton 
and attack this force by surprise. On Christmas night, with 2,400 
men, he crossed the ice-filed river nine miles from Trenton, marched 
south along the New Jersey shores, and at daybreak fell on the town. 
So sudden Avas the onslaught that the 'enemy surrendered almost with- 

43 



out resistance. Several field giins, over a thousand muskets, and other 
stores were taken. 

The victory at Trenton, coming as it did when armed resistance 
to the king's troops was supposed to be practically at an end, instilled 
new life into the patriot cause and was followed by redoubled efforts 
on the part of Congress and the supporters of the army. Having 
taken his prisoners to Philadelphia, Washington again crossed the 
Delaware into New Jersey, where Cornwallis was hastily reassembling 
the units of his army. The term of enlistment of a large number of 
the men of Washington's force expired with the end of 1776, but the 
enthusiasm engendered by the victory at Trenton, together with the 
fifty thousand dollars in cash raised chiefly through the efforts of 
Robert Morris, had a potent effect in stimulating re-enlistment and in 
restoring harmony in what otherwise would have been a demoralized 
force. 

On the approach of Cornwallis with his vastly superior force, the 
American commander-in-chief had taken up a position a little south 
of Trenton. Washington now determined to avoid an engagement, if 
possible. Hemmed in by the river on one side and by the British on 
the other, the Americans would in a few hours be at the mercy of the 
enemy. In this extremity Washington acted with his characteristic , 
decision and good judgment. Leaving a few men to keep his eampfires 
burning to deceive the British, with his main force he quietly slipped 
around the enemy 's left wing and at daylight was in the rear of Corn- 
walis' army. At Princeton he met a British force of two thousand 
men under Colonel ^lawliood, on its way to reenforce Cornwallis. 
Battle was now given immediately with the result that the British 
soon sought safety in flight, leaving the Americans exultant over an- 
other victory to be ranked w4th that at Trenton. At a critical moment 
of the battle Wa.shington exhibited the remarkable physical courage 
that had always characterized him. Observing that one of his militia 
regiments showed signs of giving way before the British attack, with 
an utter disregard for danger, he rode out to within thirty yards of 
the enemy's line and sat there to encourage his troojxs. The billowing 
smoke of battle for a moment hid him from the sight of his own men. 
With shouts the Americans surged forward after their commander, 
carrying everything before them 

Cornwallis, finding that Wa.shington had eluded him. and hearing 
of the battle at Prineeton, broke eamp and hurried to Hrunswiek to 
protect his stores there. Washington now retired to Morristown 
Heights, where he went into camp for the remainder of the winter. 
His strong j)Osition there menaced British connnunication with New 

44 



York ; hence, Cornwallis determined to give up his attempts on Phila- 
delphia, for the time being at least, and to return to New York to 
remain until the coming of summer made another campaign advisable. 

Burgoyne's Campaign in New York State, 1777. 

By the spring of 1777 the British government was ready to put 
into effect a well-conceived plan of operations in America. The new 
England States were to be severed from the Middle Atlantic and 
Southern States. This division of Colonial America was to be effected 
by the following means: (1) An army under General Burgoyne was 
to move southward from Canada into New York State via the Riche- 
lieu river, Lake Champlain, and the Hudson; (2) A thousand men 
under General St. Leger were to move eastward from Lake Ontario, 
following the Mohawk river to a point near its junction with the Hud- 
son; (3) General Howe, from his base at New York City, was to move 
up the Hudson with a large force, and was eventually to join Bur- 
goyne and St. Leger at Albany. 

The defeat of the whole enterprise was largely due to a bit of 
negligence on the part of Lord Germaine, Minister of War. Burgoyne 
and St. Leger received their instructions to proceed to the Hudson. 
Howe's orders, however, were mislaid, leaving him wholly ignorant of 
liis part in the whole program. "When the mistake was discovered, his 
force was already in the Chesapeake in the campaign against Philadel- 
phia, and it was too late to recall him. Clinton had been left at New 
York with a small force, but his efforts to cooperate in the campaign 
for control of the Hudson proved fruitless. 

General Philip Schuyler, commanding a force of American regu- 
lars or troops of the Continental line, supplemented by several thous- 
and militia, was entrusted with the defense of the Hudson. Washing- 
ton was busy preparing for the defense of Philadelphia and could 
spare but an inconsiderable portion of his force. There follows, in 
brief detail, an account of the chief events marking the campaign for 
possession of the Hudson Valley. 

By the end of June, 1777, General Burgoyne had reached Lake 
Champlain with a well equipped army of eight thousand men, consist- 
ing chiefly of British regulars and Hessians. Burgoyne had made the 
mistake of recruiting a few hundred Indians. A rumor that he in- 
tended to let loose on New York State the horrors of Indian warfare 
caused hundreds of colonists in that region to join Schuyler's force. 

Burgoyne won initial success by recovering Ticonderoga, which 
had been seized by the Americans at the beginnning of the war. 
Schuyler had left General St. Clair with three thousand men in com- 

45 



mand of this important post, which was considered impregnable. Due 
to St. Claire's carelessness, Burgoj'ne easily outgeneraled his less able 
opponent, and St. Clair fled to join Schuyler and the main American 
army at P^ort Edward. The Americans were greatly depressed by the 
fall of Ticonderoga, but aroused by the imminence of their danger, 
hundreds from New York and New England flocked to Schuyler's 
camp until his army soon outnumbered the British. Schuyler now set 
to work to impede the progress of tlie British and so well did he accom- 
plish this that in twenty-four days Burgoyne had advanced but twen- 
ty-six miles. His army was beginning to suffer from hunger, and his 
Indian allies were beginning to desert. 

Having heard that the patriots had collected stores and munitions 
at Bennington, Vermont, Burgoyne now detached five hundred Hessian 
troops under Colonel Baum, with orders to proceed to Bennington. 
Colonel John Stark, in command of several hundred Green Mountain 
Boys, was in the region and immediately attacked these Hessians. 
Re-enforcements of five hundred more Hessians under Colonel Brey- 
man failed to avert disaster. Stark and his men killed or captured 
almost the entire force of one thousand men. The battle of Benning- 
ton resulted in unretrievable loss to Burgoyne. His way south was 
now almost entirely blocked by a greatly superior force of Americans 
and his troops were on half rations. His only hope lay in co-operation 
from the jMohawk or from New York. His hopes were destined to prove 
vain, however. Leaving Burgoyne hemmed in by Schuyler's force, let 
us follow the fortunes of St. Leger and his force of British. Tories and 
Indians. 

St. Leger, according to program, had moved eastward from Lake 
Ontario. He met with little resistance until he reached Fort Stanwix, 
an American post near the headwaters of the iMohawk. Since his 
force was too small to carry the place by storm, he was forced to lay 
siege to the fort. General Herkimer, an old German resident of the 
Mohawk region, now raised a force of militia and marclied to the re- 
lief of Stanwix. At Oriskany, a few miles from the fort. Herkimer 
was ambushed by part of St. Leger's force consisting of Tories and 
Indians. Here occurred the bloodiest single conflict in the Revolution. 
In tlie most desperate hand-to-hand figliting each side lost fully a tliird 
of its men. Herkimer was mortally wounded. At length the British 
and Indians retired leaving the Americans in possession of the field, 
but the siege of Stanwix had not been raised. Two weeks later Arnold 
came to the rescue of the fort, in connnand of a force detached from 
Schuyler's army. By a clever ruse, he played on the fears of the 
Indians and brought about the precipitate flight of St. Leger and his 

46 



entire force. Thus, Burgoyne was deprived of any chance of support 
from the west. 

In the meantime Sir Henry Clinton was slowly moving up the 
Hudson with a small force, but Burgoyne 's army was now in such des- 
perate straits that he could not wait until the arrival of Clinton. In- 
deed, it is likely that had the two forces been able to unite, both, in- 
stead of one, would have fallen into the hands of the Americans. 

Burgoyne was now almost completely surrounded. Schuyler had 
unjustly been deprived of his command and General Horatio Gates 
placed in his stead. Burgoyne at length (Sept. 19), determined to 
hazard a battle. The Americans were strongly intrenched on Bemis 
Heights. Arnold, with three thousand men, met the British at Free- 
man's Farm. A desperate battle lasted until nightfall, with little ad- 
vantage on either side. Still Burgoyne had not broken through the 
encircling line of Americans. 

Nearly three weeks after the first battle of Saratoga, Burgoyne 
made a last desperate attempt to cut his way through the American 
lines (Oct. 9). His forces were driven back at practically every point. 
Fierce counter attacks led by Arnold completely demoralized the Brit- 
ish. There was now nothing for Burgoyne to do but to surrender. 

On October 12, Burgoyne secured a conference with Gates. In 
what is known as the "Saratoga Convention," Gates accepted the sur- 
render of the British force and promised the troops transportation to 
England on condition that they must not again serve in America dur- 
ing the war. In all, six thousand men M-ere surrendered with arms 
and munitions of war. Congress declined to carry out Gates' terms 
fully. Consequently most of the British and Hessian prisoners were 
sent to detention camps in Pennsylvania and Virginia, where they 
were held until the end of hostilities. 

The results of the surrender of Burgoyne 's army at Saratoga can 
hardly be overestimated. The British plan of the war was completely 
broken up. The campaign had cost the British a loss of at least ten 
thousand men. Saratoga marked the turning point of the war; in 
fact, so important is the battle considered that it has been classed 
among the decisive battles of the world. This victory, more than any 
other agent, secured for us openly given aid from France and imbued 
the American people with the firm belief that we should ultimately 
make good our claim to independence. 

Aid From France. 

From the beginning of the Revolution France had given consider- 
able aid to America. This help was given secretly, however, until 
after Burgoyne 's surrender at Saratoga. Soon after the opening of 
the struggle, Arthur Lee, as agent for Virginia, secured under a ficti- 

47 



tious firm name, military stores to the amount of $200,000. Congress 
then sent Silas Deane to France, and with Lee he secured two hundred 
heavy guns, four thousand tents, a large supply of small arms, and 
uniforms for thirty thousand men. 

After the Declaration of Independence, Benjamin Franklin was 
sent to Paris to join Lee and Deane. Franklin for more than a year 
labored to secure at the French court the recognition of the United 
States. In this he was at first unsuccessful, but Vergennes, the French 
foreign minister, made a secret arrangement to convey to America two 
million francs a year in quarterly payments, to be repaid after the 
war in merchandise. Three shiploads of army stores were also sent. 

When news of the surrender of Burgoyne reached Paris, the king 
sent word to Franklin that he was now ready to acknowledge the inde- 
pendence of the United States. In February, 1778, a secret treaty was 
concluded between the two countries. By this treaty the United States 
made solemn agreement not to make terms with England until that 
country had recognized American independence. From 1778 to the 
end of the war France gave considerable military aid to the United 
States. Her ports were open to our privateers and ships of the na-vy, 
and provided convenient bases from which to operate against English 
shipping. John Paul Jones and other American officers were fitted 
out with ships more or less seaworthy. French fleets from time to time 
operated on our Atlantic seaboard, notably at Newport and Yorktown. 
At the same time land forces were engaged in cooperation with the 
American troops. Several noted Frenchmen, among whom were 
Lafayette and De Kalb, commanded American troops in numerous 
engagements. 

The motives of the French government in giving aid to America 
were not wholly unselfish, it is true, but there did exist in France a 
strong sympathy with the American colonies in their effort to throw 
off the yoke of monarchial government. A deep-seated hatred of Eng- 
land and an effort to do her harm for which she was in no postition 
to retaliate, were undoubtedly potent factors in determining French 
attitude. Nor must we lose sight of the fact that the remarkable per- 
sonal popularity of Franklin had much to do with the success of our 
cause at the French court. IloweVer, France did lend valuable and 
timely aid in our struggle for independence, and it should l)e a source 
of pride to every American that at last we have paid the long-standing 
debt to our sister republic. 

Campaign Around Philadelphia, 1777-1778. 

During the year 1777 two important military campaigns were be- 
ing conducted simultaneously. While Burgoyne was being success- 

48 



fully opposed in New York State, Washington and his force were mak- 
ing every effort to protect Philadelphia. After the battle of Princeton, 
"Washington had gone into winter quarters at Morristown Heights, 
New Jersey, while Howe's force returned to New York. In the sum- 
mer of 1777 Howe determined to make another attempt to capture 
Philadelphia, Instead of marching overland from New York, he 
placed his troops on board transports and sailed for Chesapeake Bay. 
In order to avoid the forts at the mouth of the Delaware, he preferred 
to march on Philadelphia from the head of the Chesapeake. Washing- 
ton, learning of Howe's intentions, broke camp at Morristown and 
hastened to place his force of eight thousand men between the British 
and Philadelphia. 

Howe's force of about 15,000 men landed near Elkton, Maryland, 
and began to march toward the capital. Washington, who had taken a 
strong position at Chadd's Ford on the Brandy wine in southern Penn- 
sylvania, realized that public sentiment demanded that a blow be 
struck in defense of Philadelphia, and hence decided to risk an engage- 
ment, although he had little expectation of being able to stop Howe's 
superior force. The two forces came together Sept. 11, 1777. Corn- 
wallis, with part of the British force made a flank movement and 
gained the rear of Washington's right wing under Sullivan, This ad- 
vantage decided the battle, since the Americans were forced to drop 
back slowly, fighting desperately as they went. Washington had lost 
a thousand men and the city of Philadelphia was at the mercy of 
Howe. Congress fled to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, leaving Washington 
dictator for sixty days. The British entered the capital a few days 
later. 

Washington's army remained near Philadelphia waiting for an 
opportunity to strike the British line at some vulnerable point. De- 
spite heavy losses incurred at Brandywine, the men were in good 
spirits due to encouraging reports received from the Hudson Valley. 
An opportunity such as Washington had been looking for at length 
presented itself. Howe had stationed a portion of his army at Ger- 
mantown, a few miles north of the city. This force Washington 
planned to attack by surprise and crush before aid could be sent from 
Philadelphia. His army was to advance in four divisions, and was to 
fall upon the enemy from four different directions at daybreak, Octo- 
ber 4. This battle was so admirably planned that it should have re- 
sulted in a decisive victory, except for the fact that an unusually 
heavy fog enveloped the country on the morning of the attack. In the 
confusion and darkness, the American divisions failed to reach their 
stations at the appointed time. Consequently, the attacks were not 
made simultaneously. After a brief panic the British recovered from 

49 



their surprise and fought desperately. A few score British took 
refuge in the famous Crew mansion and there made a determined 
stand. In the heavy fog one American column under General Stephen 
fired on General Wayne's men mistakin<i- them for tlie enemy. A 
general retreat was ordered and the British seeing their sudden advan- 
tage re-formed and pursued the Americans for several miles. Tlie lat- 
ter retreated in good order, however, saving their wounded and their 
artillery. '' 

Howe now settled down in Philadelphia for the winter. Forts 
Mercer and Mifflin at the mouth of the Delaware had heen reduced, 
and the river was open to Admiral Howe's fleet and to the supply 
ships of the army. Wahington led his army to Valley Forge, a bleak 
region about twenty miles from the city, and quartered his men in log 
huts and other improvised shelters. During the terrible winter that 
followed, the suffering and privation among the American soldiers 
was intense. Insufificient clothing, scanty rations, and the ravages of 
disease made their plight truly pitiable. AVhat was even worse, a con- 
spiracy known as the "Conway Cabal," was set on foot in Congress 
and spread to certain officers in the army. The conspirators planned 
to influence Congress to oust Washington from command of the army. 
His faithful officers and soldiers felt keenly the injustice of the affair 
and tried in every way to show the Commander-in-cliief that they had 
the utmost faith and confidence in him. Fortunately, Washington's 
friends and adherents in Congress rallied to his support and crushed 
the plot. 

In some respects Washington's army benefited greatly from its 
winter at Valley Forge. While Howe's forces were growing soft and 
unfitted for hard campaigning, by reason of their luxurious living in 
a comfortable city, the American troops were drilling daily and were 
maintaining a discipline that would stand them in good stead later. 
Von Steuben, a foreign soldier of fortune, and a master of military 
science, worked diligently to build up a better army. When spring 
came he had the satisfaction of knowing that the troops of the Conti- 
nental line were e(|uar in efficiency to tlie liest trained of European 
troops. The hardships of Valley Forge were endured the more cheer- 
fully because of the great victory at Saratoga and because of the wel- 
come news that France had formed an alliance with the United States 
and that a French fleet was already on its way to America. 

It was rumored that the French fleet was to ])lockade the mouth 
of the Delaware. This would cut off Howe's means of receiving sup- 
plies by sea, so he determined to evacuate Philadelphia and to return 
ot New York, which could be more easily defended. General Howe 
was now relieved as commander-in-chief of the British armies in 

50 



America, and Sir Henry Clinton was chosen to take his place. Clinton 
immediately began to carry out his plans for evacuating the city. He 
sent most of his heavy equipment to New York by sea, and with his 
army marched across New Jersey. Washington immediately broke 
camp and followed. At Monmouth, New Jersey, the British were over- 
taken and here occurred an indecisive battle that might have been a 
victory for the American forces had not General Charles Lee's treach- 
ery frustrated Washington 's plans. Lee had been ordered to advance 
against Clinton's forces, but he ordered a retreat instead. Only 
Washington's arrival on the field at the opportune moment prevented 
a disaster. As it was the fight raged fiercely till nightfall. During 
the night Clinton again took up his march toward New York. The 
American army followed slowly and took up its position about the city, 
with headquarters in the highlands bordering the Hudson. General 
Lee, for his behavior at Monmouth was court-martialed and dismissed 
from the army. 

The battle of Monmouth was the last general engagement on 
northern soil. Washington now took up the siege of New York, which 
he maintained" until the end of the war, except for the few weeks spent 
at Yorktown in 1781. 

Miscellaneous Events From 1778-1781. 

In the midsummer of 1778 a force of eight hundred Tories and 
Indians under Colonel John Butler swept down from New York State 
upon the peaceful settlements in Wyoming Valley, Pennsylvania. The 
inhabitants resisted as best they could and near the site of Wilkes- 
barre a battle was fought. The defeat of the patriots was followed by a 
horrible Indian massacre. 

In November of the same year occurred a massacre at Cherry Val- 
ley, New York, which was scarcely less terrible than that at Wyoming 
Valley. The tories and Indians were led by Walter Butler and 
Joseph Brant, a famous Indian chief and protege of Sir William 
Johnson. 

Washington determined to punish the tories and Indians for 
these outrages, and in 1779 sent General Sullivan into the Indian coun- 
try with five thousand men. At Newton on the present site of Elmira, 
New York, occurred a terrific l)attle in which the Indians and Tories 
suffered a fearful defeat. Sullivan then laid waste the country, de- 
stroyed the growing crops and orchards on all sides, burned nearly 
forty Indian villages, and then returned after a march of 700 miles 
The Iroquois power in New York never recovered from the scourge of 
Sullivan's raid. 

51 



EiivW in 1778 George Rogers Clark, a young Virginian, conceived 
the plan of wresting the region north of the Ohio from tlie British. 
The forts in this region had long been bases from which Indian raids 
were launched against the growing settlements west of the Alleghenys, 
particularly in Kentucky and Tennessee. In May Clark floated down 
the Ohio from Pittsburgh to its mouth, taking with him one hundred 
and eighty picked frontiersmen. After a terrible march, this little 
band captured Kaskaskia, Yineennes, and other posts, and the country 
was annexed to Virginia as the county of Illinois. This achievement 
of Clark was important in that it enabled the United States at the 
close of the war to lay claim successfully to the region north of the 
Ohio, later known as the Northwest Territory. 

In the autumn of 1778, General Sullivan, with fifteen hundred 
picked men was to cooperate with a French tleet under Count d'Es- 
taing in an attack on Newport, Rhode Island, which was held by the 
British. Sullivan's army was increased by several tliousand New Eng- 
land volunteers, and success seemed certain, when a violent gale crip- 
pled and scattered the fleet, this causing the project to be abandoned. 

The following year, 1779, Washington, wishing to tighten his 
lines about New York, gave "Mad Anthony" Wayne the task of cap- 
turing Stony Point, a strong British position a few miles south of 
West Point. In July General Wayne, with twelve hundred infantry- 
men, made a surprise atack under cover of darkness, and by a cour- 
ageous bayonet charge forced the surrender of the position. 

The discovery' of the treason of Benedict Arnold in 1780 was a 
shock not only to his friends in the army but to the country at large. 
While commandant of West Poiiit, our most important ])osition on the 
Hudson, Arnold planned to surrender the fort to the Britisli. For 
weeks he had been in communication with Clinton at New York. Only 
the capture of Major Andre, a British spy, on whom incriminating evi- 
dence against Arnold was found, prevented the successful culmina- 
tion of his plan. Hearing of the captui'c of Andre, Arnold escaped to 
the British, and for the remainder of the war served against his coun- 
trymen. Major Andre was executed in retaliation for the hanging of 
Nathan Hale by the British in 1776, during the campaign near New 
York. 

During the Revolution the United States had in service on the sea 
very few ships of the Navy. Hundreds of privateers, however, preyed 
on British shipping with considerable success. Only one naval hero 
of the war, Jolui Paul Jones, has left a permanent and conspicuous 
name in our history. Jones in 1776 sailed from Portsmouth, New 
Hampshire, in connuand of the Ranger, bearing important dispatches 
to France. On his way over he secured a niimber of valual)le prizes. 

52 



Arriving iu France, he was given command, after a long delay, of a 
small squadron consisting of his flagship, the Bonhomme Richard, the 
Pallas and the Alliance. Off Flamborough Head, England, he fell in 
with a fleet of merchantmen, convoyed by two English warships, the 
Serapis and the Countess of Scarborough. The Palas successfully 
attacked the Countess of Scarborough, and one of the most famous 
naval duels in history began at nightfall when Jones in the Bonhomme 
Richard engaged the Serapis, Captain Pearson. At length the two 
ships were lashed together and the sailors fought hand to hand with 
pistol, pike and cutlass. A number of Jones's heavy guns exploded, 
killing the crews, the Bonhomme Richard was on fire and in a sinking 
condition, yet the unconquerable determination of her gallant com- 
mander at length won the fight. After the surrender of the Serapis, 
Jones transferred his wounded and prisoners, just in time to prevent 
their being carried down by the sinking of the Bonhomme Richard. 

Campaign in the South, 1778-1781. 

Late in the year 1778 the theater of w^ar was transferred to the 
South. The failure of Burgojaie's project of seizing the Hudson 
necessitated a radical change in the British plans for conducting the 
war. It was now planned to start with the southernmost colony, 
Georgia, and conquer northward M'ith a view to holding the conquered 
territory should peace come in the meantime. The British leaders had 
about given up hope of bringing the war to an end with a clear-cut 
decision in favor of the mother country. 

In December, 1778, nearly four thousand British regulars landed 
near Savannah, under command of Colonel Campbell. The small 
American force in the vicinity under General Robert Howe, was hope- 
lessly outnumbered. The Americans were routed with the loss of five 
hundred prisoners and the city of Savannah surrendered with all its 
military stores. British reenforcements under General Prevost ar- 
rived, and Augusta, and other points soon fell into the hands of the 
enemy. Most of the year 1779 was spent by the British in completing 
the conquest of Georgia. The English colonial government was re- 
stored, and, since Georgia had a large percentage of its population loy- 
alists, the British felt that they had secured a firm grasp on the South. 
In September General Lincoln, who had succeeded Howe as command- 
er of the American forces in the South, moved his force into Georgia 
from South Carolina. A French fleet under D'Estaing arrived at 
the mouth of the Savannah to cooperate with Lincoln in an attempt 
to recover the city. After having endured a heavy bombardment for 
three weeks, night and day, Prevost still retained possession of Savan- 
nah. D'Estaing proposed a combined assault on the British works,^ 

53 



I 



and this was carried out witli desperate valor. ))ut Failed. Among the 
hundreds slain was Count Pulaski, a noted Polish, soldier whose ser- 
vices had proved of great value to the American cause. Soon after 
the departure of the French fleet Sir Henry Clinton and General 
Corn wal lis arrived from New York with a fleet and eight thousand 
soldiers. , 

Clinton with liis combined force now mardied into South Carolina, 
having as his o))jective point Charleston, which was occupied by Gen- 
eral Lincoln and seven thousand troops. Lincoln preferred a siege to 
flight and, consequently, allowed Clinton to surround the city. Day by 
day the situation grew worse for the Americans until May 12, 1780, 
when General Lincoln surrendered the city and his entire force to the 
British. The fall of Charleston was one of the most disastrous events 
of the war. It opened the way for British control of South Carolina 
and destroyed for the time being, at least, all organized resistance on 
the part of the Americans. The British and loyalists, however, con- 
tinued to be harassed ])y armed l)ands of guerrilla fighters under such 
leaders as Marion, Pickens, Sumter and Lee. 

Washington now determined to send to the Carolinas an army to 
take the place of that surrendered at Charleston. General DeKalb 
was sent south with fifteen hundred tried troops, the militia from Vir- 
ginia, Maryland and North Carolina responded to the call, and patriot 
hopes again rose. General Gates was chosen liy Congress to lead the 
American forces. 

Gates hastened into South Carolina and at Camden came in con- 
tact with Cornwallis' force. By a strange coincidence botli command- 
ers planned to advance on the same night, each to surprise the other. 
The result was a mutual surprise, with disastrous results for Gates's 
force. His raw militia fled at the first fire, and his regulars sacrificed 
tJH'mselves no))ly in a vnin effort to stem the British onslaught. De- 
Kalb, commanding the troops of the Continental line fell mortally 
wounded. The American army was scattered far and wide and was 
never reorganized. Three days after the battle Gates was found with 
a few of his officers and no ])aggage nearly two hundred miles from 
Camden. 

T^ndaunted by the crushing defeat at Camden, Washington im- 
mediately made plans to retrieve the losses in the South. General 
Nathanael Greene was chosen to lead another army into the Carolinas. 
Greene was an excellent leader and was a))ly seconded ])y General 
Morgan, who also came down from the north. Greene succeeded in 
raising several thousand troo]is. The Amt-rican army was expected to 
start an offensive in the spring of 1781. 

54 



In the meantime the British received a blow from a wholly unex- 
pected source. In northwestern South Carolina was the British major, 
Ferguson, commanding twelve hundred men, chiefly Tories. At 
King's Mountain, on the border of North Carolina, he was suddenly 
attacked in the fall of 1780 by a thousand backwoodsmen from west 
of the mountains. Each settlement in Kentucky and Tennessee had 
furnished its quota, under such leaders as Sevier, Shelby, Campbell 
and Williams. Campbell was chosen as the leader of the frontiersmen, 
but, in reality, each band fought under its own leader, as at Concord 
and Lexington. Surrounding King's Mountain, on which Ferguson 
had taken a strong position, the men of Kentucky and Tennessee 
assaulted the British with such gallantry that the contest soon became 
an unequal one. Ferguson refused to surrender, and was mortally 
wounded wiiile trying to cut his way through the American force. 
The remnant of his command surrenderd when nearly half of their 
number had been killed. Taking their prisoners with them, the Ameri- 
cans retired to their homes beyond the mountains. King's Mountain 
was their one contribution to the patriot cause, but the battle proved 
the turning point of the war in the South. From that time until the 
close of the war, the Patriot army was almost uniformly successful in 
its efforts to defeat the British plan of conquering the South. 

Greene's new army took the field early in 1781. Morgan, with 
about a thousand men, met Colonel Tarleton with a British force at 
Cowpens, near King's Mountain. In the furious battle that followed 
Tarleton 's force was almost annihilated. Cornwallis' command was 
greatly weakened by the battle of Cowpens, but his force being still 
numerically superior to that of Greene, he determined to force the 
Americans into an engagement and crush them at all hazards. Greene 
quickly perceived this and decided to lure Cornwallis as far as possible 
from his base of supplies at Charleston. His famous strategic retreat 
northward began immediately. Cornwallis took up the pursuit and 
followed closely for two hundred miles. At Guilford Court House, 
just south of the Virginia-North Carolina line, Greene suddenly 
turned and offered battle. The battle raged until nightfall, when the 
British were left in possession of the field. The real victory lay with 
Greene, however. He had destroyed a fourth of the British army and 
had left Cornwallis fas from his base with a poorly provisioned and 
partly demoralized force. The British at once struck out for the sea- 
coast and reached Wilmington. After a short rest they repaired to 
Yorktown, Virginia, to await reenforcements and supplies from New 
York. 

North Carolina was now left in the hands of the Americans. 
Greene soon turned southward and regained control of the greater 

55 



part of South Carolina and Georgia. At Eutaw Spring, South Caro- 
lina, he met and defeated Colonel Stewart who connnanded part of 
Lord Rawdon's force. After a few weeks the British were sliut up 
in Charleston and Savannah. Thus their two year's campaigning in 
the south had gained them nothing. 

Comwallis was now at Yorktown and his raiding parties were 
harassing the neighboring country. lie was skillfully opposed by 
Lafayette and Wayne with a few hundred men who had l)een sent 
from the north. Washington, who for three years had been guarding 
the Hudson and threatening New York City, now deemed the time 
ripe for a deciding stroke. The news reached him that a powerful 
French fleet under Count de Grasse, bearing twenty thousand soldiers, 
was about to sail from the West Indies for the Chesapeake. Washing- 
ton at once determined to trap Comwallis at Yorktown, before British 
aid should reach him. Having left General Heath with a few thousand 
men on the Hudson, and liaving made a feint of attacking Staten 
Island in order to deceive Clinton, by forced marches he hastened with 
his main force to join Lafayette and Wayne before Yorktown. In the 
meantime the French fleet had sailed into the Chesapeake. Clinton 
now perceived Comwallis' danger and sent from New York a strong 
fleet under Admirals Hood and Graves. In the ensuing naval action 
the British fleet was so badly damaged that it returned to New York 
for repairs. This left Comwallis to his fate. The allied armies con- 
centrated at Yarktown late in August. Bombardment of the city be- 
gan soon after. Day by day the British works crumbled under the in- 
cessant cannonading and the trenches of the French and Americans 
were pushed closer and closer. On October 17. 1781, the white flag 
was hoisted in the British lines. After negotiations lasting two days. 
Comwallis agreed to surrender his force of over eight thousand men. 
Washington granted him exactly the same terms that he had given 
General Lincoln at Charleston in 1780. The British in stacking their 
arms were required to march between two long lines of victorious 
soldiers, the French on one side in their l)right uniforms, the Ameri- 
cans on the other in their faded blue and l)uff. 

The news of the surrender of Comwallis was received with un- 
bounded rejoicing everywhere througliout the Ignited States. It was 
evident, both in this country and in Europe, that the master-stroke at 
Yorktown had ended the war. After seven years of campaiging, the 
British lield only New York, Charleston and Savannah, and had lost 
two entire armies. Peace, however, was not made until 1784. In the 
meantime the army was not entirely disbanded, Washington maintain- 
ing his headquarters on the Hudson. 

56 



The treaty of peace was finally arranged in Paris, with Franklin, 
Jay and John Adams as the American representatives. Our commis- 
sioners had been instructed not to culminate a treaty with England 
without the consent of the French government, but there were indica- 
tions that the French wished to deprive the United States of the region 
between the Mississippi and the Allegheny Mountains, in the interests 
of Spain. This led the Americans to treat with England secretly. 

By the treaty the independence of the United States was acknowl- 
edged and Great Britain gave up all control over the region east of 
the Mississippi, south of the Great Lakes, and north of Florida. The 
Mississippi was to be open to both American and British shipping, and 
the Americans were to retain their fishing rights off Newfoundland. 
The United States was to see that British merchants were paid debts 
incurred prior to the Revolution, and was to recommend to the states 
that Loyalists be dealt with leniently. The British were to pay for 
slaves carried away during the war and were to evacuate the military 
posts in the northwest. 

The terms of the Treaty of Paris were never fully carried out by 
either side. This is particularly true of those pertaining to the treat- 
ment of Loyalists and to the payment for slaves confiscated. The 
British continued for a number of years to hold, on one pretext or 
another, the forts on the Great Lakes. 

Shortly after the signing of the treaty, Washington disbanded 
his forces, resigned his commission, and after a touching farewell to his 
officers, retired to private life on his estate at Mount Vernon. 

GOVERNIVIENT UNDER THE ARTICLES 
OF CONFEDERATION. 

Soon after the Declaration of Independence, the Second Con- 
tinental Congress had set to work to devise a system of government 
to take the place of the British colonial governments of the varioiis 
colonies. A document embodying what are known as the Articles of 
Confederation was at length drawn up and sent to the states for ratifi- 
cation. Due to delays incident to the war, it was not until 1781 that 
ratification by the states was completed. A new Congress assumed 
control in that j^ear under the provisions of the Articles. 

Both in personnel and powers the new Congress was inferior to 
the Second Continental Congress that had conducted the war. The 
Articles of Confederation soon proved deplorably inadequate for the 
government of the country, since they made little provision for the 
enforcement of such laws as were passed by the Congress. Such a 
constitution might have served to hold the states together in the face 
of their common danger from Great Britain, but now that the war 

57 



was over the states reverted to tlieir former jealousy and distrust of 
eaeli other. Each state resented control or interference of any kind 
by the national orovernment. Able men of the time preferred to serve 
in public office in their own states rather than in the Congrress of the 
nation. It seemed not improbable that what was meant to be a union 
of thirteen states would ])eoome thirteen separate nations, which Avould 
be fit subjects for absorption by European governments. For the 
seven years of the Revolution production had been almost at a stand- 
still throughout the country. Now, a few years after the cessation of 
hostilities, the affairs of the country were rapidly drifting toward 
anarchy. 

Lack of a stable national government was the chief cause of the 
unrest that was manifested in all classes. As a whole, the Articles 
of Confederation were extremely defective. They pro^'^ded for but 
one branch of government, the legislativ<^ branch. Tliere was no 
Supreme Court to interpret the laws and no executive department to 
enforce them. There was but one house of Congress, in which the 
states had equal representation Avithout regard to population, size, or 
wealtli. Congress had no power to regulate commerce between states; 
each state could lay its own tariff on imported goods from either for- 
eign countries or from other states ; a citizen could have no direct rela- 
tion toward the federal government ; each state could coin its own 
money, or issue pa])er money ; C'ongress had no power over taxation, 
and could only requisition the states for money necessary for the ex- 
penses of the government. This last was the most glaring fault in the 
Articles. Some of the states refused to contribute their part of the 
api^ortionment, and Congress had no ])Ower to force them to do so. 

The national treasury was in a depleted condition ; a heavy war 
debt hung over the nation ; the soldiers were clamoring for their back 
pay, and, in fact, a number of tiiem marched in a body to Philadeli)hia 
to demand redress of their grievances at the point of the bayonet, 
whereupon Congress fled to New Jersey. In Euroj)e the ITnited States 
was losing much of the high opinion in which it had been held during 
the war; its credit was exhausted and its rej>resntatives were being 
treated with half-veiled contem])t. 

Ill 1786 occuriH'd an ui)rising in ^Massachusetts of abdut two thou- 
sand laboi'ei's and farmers led l)y Daniel Sliay, an ex-oftieer of the 
Continental Army. Shay marclied to Springfield, stopped the court 
proceeding at wliieli men were being convicted and imprisoned for 
debt, and seized the government arsenal. On the coming of troops 
from Hoston, the band (lis]iersi'd. Shay's TJel)ellion is important in 
tluit it ty]>ifies conditions througliout the country. 

58 



Congress under the Articles of Confederation has but one import- 
ant piece of constructive legislation to its credit. In 1787 the North- 
west Ordinance was drawn up for the government of the national 
territory north of the Ohio. The act of organization placed the terri- 
tory under temporary control of a governor and three judges. Citi- 
zens of the territory were to enjoy political and religious liberty; 
public land was set apart, the proceeds from the sale of which were 
to be used for the establishment of public education ; and slavery was 
to be forever excluded from the region. Eventually from three to five 
states were to be made out of the territory. The restriction of slavery 
in the Northwest Territory established an important precedent for 
future action by the national government, and the encouraging of pub- 
lic education was characteristic of the progressive spirit of the new 
west. This ordinance has been rightfully considered an admirable 
bit of legislation. 

THE MAKING OF THE CONSTITUTION. 

The defects in the Articles of Confederation were clearly appar- 
ent to the more brilliant and far-sighted statesmen of the time, who 
were apprehensive for the future of the country. All were agreed 
that definite steps must be taken to form a "more perfect union," but 
as to the manner in which these reforms were to be carried out, there 
were but vague theories presented with doubt and misgiving. 

In 1785 representatives of Maryland and Virginia met at Wash- 
ington's home at Mount Vernon to adjust a number of points of com- 
mercial friction between the two states. Adjustment of commercial 
relations appeared to be a subject of such interest to the states as a 
whole that the little conference at Mount Vernon resulted in a call 
being sent out to the governments of all the states to send representa- 
tives to a convention to be held at Annapolis in 1786 for the purpose 
of considering changes in the Articles of Confederation. 

The Annapolis Convention met in September, 1786, with but 
twelve delegates present, representing but five states. Neither New 
England nor the far South had responded. Being too small to repre- 
sent the country at large, the bodj^ of- delegates did little except to 
send out a more urgent call for a second convention to be held at Phil- 
adelphia the following year. Since there was considerable doubt as to 
the attitude of people in the various states, Congress, in session at 
Philadelphia, hesitated for a time before sanctioning the movement. 
The enthusiastic support of the call, given by Washington, Madison, 
and men of like calibre, at length was followed by the leaders in the 
different states. ( 

59 



The Philadelphia convention met in 1787 in Independence Hall, 
with representatives from every state except Rhode Island. Among 
the delegates were some of the ablest men in American history. There 
were Washington, Madison, Franklin, Hamilton, Randolph, Robert 
Morris, Rutledge, C. C. Pinckney, Rufns King, and others of almost 
equal note. Washington was chosen chairman. 

From the very opening of the convention there was division of 
opinion as to how best to accomplish the work for which the delegates 
had assembled. Many counseled moderation and favored a mild re- 
vision of the Articles of Confederation. Others, more radical, de- 
manded the casting aside of the Articles and the formation of an en- 
tirely new constitution built up on basically different lines. A num- 
ber of different plans were introduced by delegates from the various 
sections. There Avas the ''Virginia Plan," providing for complete 
change in government, for the formation of a federal union, with 
legislative, executive and judicial branches of government. Less radi- 
cal was the "New Jersey Plan," favored by the smaller states, and 
providing for mere amendment of the Articles to give enlarged pow- 
ers to Congress. Then there were extremists on both sides. Alexan- 
der Hamilton desired a form of government that provided for what 
was practically a monarchy, with public officials holding office for life. 

So bitter were the long- debates that the convention was on the 
point of breaking up a number of times. Very early in the session it 
became apparent that little could be accomplished except through com- 
promise. At length the Virginia Plan was agreed upon as a basis of the 
new constitution. From this point on, the story of the proceedings is 
of one compromise after another. Following are several of the more 
important. 

When it was proposed that representation in Congress be appor- 
tioned according to the population or wealth of each state, the smaller 
states protested bitterly. Finally it was agreed that the legislative 
branch of the government should consist of two houses, the Senate and 
the House of Representatives. In the former the states were to have 
equal representation, two senators from each state ; in the latter, the 
States were to have representation in proportion to their populations. 

The second compromise was between the free and the slave states. 
Wlien it came to the question of representation in tlie House, the 
Southern states strongly insisted that their negroes should ])e counted 
with the whites. The North was unyielding in its opposition to such 
a count. At length it was agreed to count three-fifths of the slaves, 
and thus the matter was amiea])ly settled. 

Tlie South at first opposed giving Congress control of commerce, 
but at last yielded to New Enghmd on condition that no export tax be 

60 



laid. The question of the slave trade was compromised by permitting 
such trade until 1808, after which date no more slaves were to be 
brought in from Africa or elsewhere. 

A Supreme Court was created, with minor federal courts ; provi- 
sion was made for a chief executive ; the powers of the various depart- 
ments were defined; and terms of office fixed for officials, with the 
modes of election of such officials. 

The actual writing of the Constitution was chiefly the work of 
James Madison, who, more than any other one man, is responsible for 
the document. It must be remembered that the Constitutional Conven- 
tion consisted only of accredited representatives from various states 
and that it had no power in itself to change the form of government of 
the country. The Convention could only provide a plan of govern- 
ment and submit to the states, which were then left to decide whether 
or not it should be put into effect in place of the Articles of Confeder- 
ation. Had the states declined to ratify the work of their representa- 
tives at Philadelphia, the work of the Convention would have been in 
vain. 

The process of ratification of the Constitution was necessarily 
slow. There immediately sprang into being two political parties. Those 
favoring the Constitution were known as Federalists, those opposed to 
it as Anti-Federalists. The point advanced by the Anti-Federalist 
was that the Constitution endangered the liberties of the people in 
that it provided a too strong and centralized government. On this 
ground it was opposed by such men as Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, 
John Hancock and other influential citizens. Delaware was the first 
state to ratify. She was followed by Pennsylvania and New Jersey. 
At length New York, Massachusetts and Virginia approved the Consti- 
tution, and were in turn followed by most of the less influential states. 
Several states hesitated to ratify until assurance was given them that 
desired amendments would be made. North Carolina and Rhode 
Island did not ratify mitil after the new government had been organ- 
ized. The Constitution went into effect in 1789. Washington was 
unanimously chosen President by the first Electoral College. 

WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
1789-1797. 

March 4, 1789, had been chosen as the day for the assembling of 
the new Congress under the Constitution, but by that date hardly a 
third of the newly elected Senators and Representatives had reached 
New York, which was to be the temporary capital. Bad roads, the un- 
certainty of travel facilities, and the late date of the elections, all 
served to delay the members of Congress. The month of April had 

61 



nearly elapsed before Congress completed its organization, counted 
the electoral vote, and was ready to participate In the ceremony of in- 
augurating the new President. 

Washington's journey from Virginia to New York was one round 
of ovation. Everywhere he was met with the greatest enthusiasm and, 
on reaching the city, he was greeted with an outburst of welcome from 
the very hearts of the people. On April ;^0, tlie new President of the 
United States was inaugurated at Federal Hall. AVashington took the 
oath of office in the presence of thousands of citizens, but retired in- 
doors to deliver his inaugural address. Throughout the ceremonies he 
exhibited the greatest dignity in bearing, as befitted one intrusted 
with the grave responsibilities attendant on lauiirliing a new govern- 
ment. 

In choosing his first Cabinet he api>ointed men of unimpeachable 
character and motive. Jefferson beeame Secretary of State: Alexander 
Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury ; General Knox, Secretary of 
AVar; and Edward Randolph, Attorney-General. During Washing- 
ton's administration there were but four members of the Cabinet. 
Additional offices have been created from time to time until today we 
have ten Cabinet officers. A Supreme Court was organized with John 
Jay as its first Chief Justice. 

Some of the business confronting the first Congress of the United 
States was the creation of the various executive and judicial dei)art- 
ments, the fixing of salaries, the making of appropriations for running 
the government, the enacting of laws taxing foreign goods and certain 
domestic commodities, the paying of the interest on the national debt, 
the subduing of hostile Indian tribes in the Noi'thwest. the taking of a 
census of the inhabitants, the organization of a diplomatic corps, and 
numerous other tasks requiring wisdom, tact, patience and zeal on the 
part of Congress. 

Due to the new government's urgent need of fmids. Alexander 
Hamilton occupied the center of the stage in Washington's first admin- 
istration. As Secretary of the Treasury, his genius for handling 
financial problems was of almost inestimable value to the nation. In 
a very few years he had established the United States on a firm finan- 
cial footing both at home and abroad. His Avork may be mentioned 
under four headings: (1) The securing of excise and import tax leg- 
islation; (2) Influencing the states to agree to federal assumption of 
state debts; (3) The funding of the national debt, or arranging it in 
the form of interest bearing l)onds maturing at specified dates: (4) 
The establishing of a United States Bank to handle government funds, 
so organized that the government owned part of its capital stock while 
private individuals controlled the remainder of the stock. 

62 



The federal governiuent's assumption of state debts was in line 
with Hamilton 's. idea of a strong centralized government. He felt that 
if the people of the states could be made to look to the national govern- 
ment for the payment of money owed to the citizens by the state, it 
would secure a widespread interest in the welfare and success of the 
new government and at the same time subordinate the states. A num- 
ber of states were slow to agree to the plan, particularly in the South, 
since some of them had already paid off a portion of their debt. A 
deal was finally made between Hamilton and Jefferson whereby Jef- 
ferson agreed to lend his influence in the South to secure assumption, 
in return for Hamilton's influence toward having the new capital 
placed in the South. Thus the success of the assumption measure was 
assured, since Hamilton largely controlled the Federalist party and 
Jeft'erson was leader of the Anti-Federalists, or Democratic-Republi- 
cans, as they were soon called. 

Even before the assumption of state debts the debt of the United 
States was over fifty million dollars. Twelve millions of this was 
owed to foreign countries, particularly France. An annual revenue of 
more than four million dollars was needed to pay the interest on this 
debt. Hamilton met this need by securing a tariff on imported goods 
averaging less than ten per cent. An internal revenue or excise tax 
was also placed on distilled liquors to provide additional funds for 
meeting the expenses of the government. The United States Bank, 
chartered for a period of ten years with a capital of $10,000,000, was 
to supply the people with a circulating medium, was to have the privi- 
lege of holding on deposit the funds of the United States, and was to 
manage all government loans and lend money to the government in 
emergency. 

The so-called "Whisky Rebellion," important because it was the 
first serious test of the new government's power to enforce its laws, 
occurred in 1794 in western Pennsylvania. The internal tax on liquor 
precipitated rioting on the part of those who had been accustomed to 
market their grain products in the form of whisky. The government, 
under the Confederation, would have been powerless to collect the 
revenues, but the President determined to us force. In a short time 
15.000 militia were marching toward the scene of the trouble. On the 
approach of the soldiers the rioters dispersed and henceforth the inter- 
nal revenue was collected without difficulty. 

"Washington's first administration was marked by serious Indian 
troubles in the North\vest Territory. It was here that both General 
Harmer and General St. Clair were defeated and their armies cut to 
pieces. The hostility of the savages was retarding the work of settling 
in the territory, so at length Washington sent General Anthony Wayne 

63 



to punish them. Wayne met the Indians in 1793 at Fallen Timbers on 
the Maiimee. Here a decisive battle broke the Indian power and freed 
Ohio from danger. 

The French Revolution naturally made a profound impression on 
American politics. The close relationship between France and Ameri- 
ca during' the Revolution and the natural sympathy felt by Americans 
toward the French in their eflforts to throw off the yoke of monarchy, 
caused the people of the United States to take a deep interest in 
affairs abroad. The Federalists had little sympathy with the violence 
of the French movement, but Jefferson and his following showed the 
greatest enthusiasm and Were desirous that the United States give 
actual aid to the French Republic in its struggle with England. AVash- 
ington very riglitfully believed that America should keep free of Euro- 
pean entanglements at that time. The attitude of the administration 
evoked a storm of abuse and bitter criticism on the part of adherents 
of the "French Party." Citizen Genet, the French Republic's first 
minister to tlie United States, failed to gain an insight into the real 
temper of the American people, so taking his cue from the radical Pro- 
French with w^hom he came in contact, he openly criticised the Presi- 
dent for his Proclamation of Neutrality. What was worse, he disre- 
garded the neutrality of the country and despite the protest of the 
government, used American harbors in which to fit out privateers to 
prey on British commerce. At length his conduct became so iinbear- 
able that the government insisted that France recall him. This was 
done and in a short time the agitation in favor of the French died out. 

During this administration our strained relations with Great 
Britain provided another source of worry for the President. Great 
Britain's revival of the Rule of 1756 seriously interfered with our 
trade with the French West Indies; promises made in the Treaty of 
Paris had not been carried out by the British; the Algerian pirates 
were being incited to prey on American commerce; and the British 
were, with impunity, impressing American seamen on the liigli seas. 
Irritation from these sources was rapidly l)ecoming unendurable In 
an effort to prevent war between the two countries, Washington sent 
John Jay to England with instructions to secure a treaty if possible 
tliat would alleviate tliesc conditions. Tli(> best tliat Jay eould do was 
to secui'e a modification of the Britisli ruling in regard to West Indian 
trade and to secure the evacuation of the forts in the Northwest. No 
satisfaction could be obtained on such important questions as im- 
pressment and kindred topics. When Jay. in 1795, returned with the 
treaty a storm of deininciation greeted liim. American disaiijioint- 
ment at the meagre i-i suits obtained centered on the heads of Jay and 
the President. Washington, calm in the face of criticism, realized 

64 



that a rejection of the treaty would mean war, so used his personal in- 
fluence with Congress to secure ratification. Much of the bitterness 
engendered by the treaty was inspired by the Republican opponents 
of the Federalists. 

The same year that war with England was averted by Jay's 
Treaty the. President sent Thomas Pinckney as special envoy to the 
Court of Spain. He there negotiated a treaty by which Spain per- 
mitted us to make commercial use of the ]\Iississippi River and the port 
of New Orleans. This agreement gave promise of being highly benefi- 
cial to the settlers west of the Allegheny Mountains who had no high- 
way to market other than the Mississippi and its tributaries. 

Eli Wliitney's cotton gin, invented during Washington's admin- 
istration, had important effect on the institution of slavery in this 
country. This labor-saving device made cotton growing highly profit- 
able and thus gave new life to slavery, which, had showed signs of 
slowly dying out. From a feeling that slavery was a sort of necessary 
evil, to be patiently tolerated, the South soon developed the conviction 
that the institution was the basis of the economical and industrial 
prosperity of the section. 

Washington refused to consider a third term in office and after 
delivering a farewell address to the people of America, retired to 
Mount Vernon. His administrations, as a whole, had been wonder- 
fully successful, considering the immensity of the task that had con- 
fronted him. 

JOHN ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION. 
1797-1801. 

By the end of Washington's second administration the Anti-Fed- 
eralist element had grown, under the able leadership of Thomas Jeffer- 
son, into a strong political party calling itself the Democratic-Republi- 
can party, or Republican party. New England remained the strong- 
hold of Federalism. The election of 1796 was a bitter party struggle > 
in which John Adams, Washington's Vice-President, won over Jeffer- 
son, the Republican candidate, by the narrow margin of three electoral 
votes. 

No sooner had a temporary settlement of our difficulties with Eng- 
land been effected by the Jay Treaty than the United States found 
itself involved in trouble with the French government. It now fell to 
the lot of Adams to meet the complications arising from the bitter re- 
sentment felt in France over Jay's Treaty, which had given to Eng- 
land privileges denied to France. Again the French began to seize 
American ships. When C. C. Pinckney, Adams' minister to France, 
arrived in Paris, he not only was refused recognition by the French 

65 



government, ])ut was even warned to leave the country. Adams 
still hoped to avoid war and sent Marhall and Gerry to join Pinekney. 
In a few weeks came the astounding news that the French Directory, 
not content witli refusing to receive our new envoys, had unofficially 
informed them tliat if they wanted a treaty they nnist furnish a (luar- 
ter of a million dollars as a bribe for the pockets of the" French gov- 
ernment officials. In the dispatches the three Frenchmen who had 
made this outrageous demand upon our commissioners were desig- 
nated "X., Y. and Z." Consequently, tiie incident is frequentlv 
known as the "X. Y. Z. AflPair." 

When Adams laid the matter of the "X. Y. Z. Affair" before 
Congress in 1798, preparations for war were immediately begun. 
While Congress did not actually declare war on France, the building 
of warships was l)egun, the Navy Depai-tment was organized, priva- 
teers were conunissioned, and orders were given for tlie cay^ture of 
French cruisers and merchantmen. The beliavior of France had the ef- 
fect of discrediting the Republican party in this country, at least for a 
time, and Adams and the Federalists reached the lieight of their popu- 
larity. Tliis popularity was short-lived, liowever, for the Federali.sts 
used their advantage to rush tlirougli Congress several pieces of anti- 
Republican legislation: (1) a Naturalization Act, increasing the re- 
quired residence for naturalization from five years to fourteen years; 
(2) the Alien Acts, allowing the President to expel aliens from the 
country during either peace or war; (3) a Sedition Act, making it a 
criminal offense to write or speak seditiously against the government, 
or Congress, or the President. 

The Republicans were furious at such legislation, rightfully con- 
sidering it aimed at their party. The Naturalization and the Alien 
Acts would indirectly affect the power and growth of tlu' party while 
the Sedition Act, if enforced, would effectually muzzle the Republican 
press and its followers while permitting the Federalists to indulge in 
any amount of vilification of their opponents. Jefferson. ]\Iadison, 
and other leaders of the Republican party innnediately set to work to 
take advantage of the rash move on tlie part of the Federalists. Pub- 
lic sentiment was skillfully aroused and a storm of l)itter denunciation 
was hurled against Adams and his supporters in Congress. The 
famous Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions were passed, drawn up by 
]\Ia<lison and JeftVrson respectively. These resolutions attacked the 
acts on the ground that they were unconstitutional and a menace to 
the liberties of the people. Such widespread attention was given the 
resolutions that eventually the unpopular acts brought about the 
do^vi>fall of the Fedei'alist jiarty. 

66 



In the meantime hostilities with France continued, confined chief- 
ly to attacks on the sea. The American frigate Constellation captured 
the French frigate Vengeance; the Boston took the Berceau; and a 
number of merchant ships were taken on both sides. About this time 
Napoleon succeeded in overthrowing the corrupt French government 
and made himself dictator of France. He was shrewd enough to see 
that he could gain nothing by war with America and bence signified 
his willingness to come to an agreement with the United States. Presi- 
dent Adams very patriotically disregarded the wishes of his party and 
abruptly ended the w^ar. Early in 1801 a treaty was concluded with 
France. 

The Alien and Sedition Acts furnished excellent campaign ma- 
terial for the Republicans in the election of 1800. Aided by dissensions 
among the Federalist leaders, the Republican candidates, Jefferson 
and Burr, carried the Presidential election and secured a majority in 
the new Congress. The Federalists were crushed by the results of the 
election and the closing days of Adams' administration are marked by 
a petty and spiteful party spirit. Having lost control of the executive 
and legislative branches of the government, they tried desperately to 
embarrass the incoming President. Wherever possible Adams appoint- 
ed staunch Federalists and even created offices for members of his 
part}^, particularly in the judicial department. The latter appointees 
are known as "midnight" judges from the fact that Adams spent his 
last evening in office in signing their commissions. 

Despite the ungracious exit of the Federalists in 1801, the party 
while in power did, perhaps, accomplish as much for the lasting benefit 
of the nation as has any subsequent party. The Federalist party has 
to its credit a long list of achievements; Peace secured with England, 
France and Spain ; credit restored abroad and at home ; a navy 
created ; domestic manufactures begun and foreign trade developed. 
Federalists could well point with pride to the constructive ability of 
such men as Washington, Adams, Hamilton, Jay, Pinckney, and many 
other lesser lights. 

THOMAS JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 

1801-1809. 

With the inauguration of Thomas Jefferson begins a period of 
Republican supremacy. Soon after the beginning of Washington's 
term of office the seat of government was moved from New York to 
Philadelphia. Philadelphia remained the capital for several years 
while Washington, the new capital, was being built. In 1800 the seat 
of government was moved to the new city on the Potomac. Thus Jef- 

67 



ferson, who was iiiaiignirated in 1801. was tlie first President to take 
the oath of office in the present capital. 

Immediately after the election of 1800, Aaron l^urr claimed the 
Presidency on a technicality ai-isinp" fi'om the fact that since he had 
received the same inimber of electoral votes as Jefferson, he had the 
rigrht nnder the Constitution of having the election decided in the 
House of Representatives. The intentions of the voters were obviously 
to vote for Jefferson for the Presidency and Burr for the Vice-Presi- 
dency. This defect in the Constitution, however, enabled Burr to 
carry the election into Congress. The House of Representatives 
fortunately did not see fit to oppose what was plainly the will of the 
people of the country and chose Jefferson President. Tn order to pre- 
vent a recurrence of such an affair, in 1804 the states ratified the 
Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution, which provided that the 
President and Vice-President be voted for separately. 

The Federalist and Republican policies may be contrasted as fol- 
lows. The Federalists believed in a strong centralized government, to 
which the governmtMits of the states should be subordinate; the Re- 
publicans believed that the federal goverinnent should confine itself to 
managing our dealings with foreign nations, and should interfere as 
little /IS ])ossible with the governing of the several states. The Federal- 
ists believed that the affairs of government should l)e conducted by the 
aristocratic and highly educated few ; the Republicans preferred to 
trust the government to the good sense and patriotism of the common 
people. PVderalists believed in maintaining a strong army and na\y ; 
Jefferson and his followers preferred to reduce both greatly. The Fed- 
eralist leaders preferred to pay off the national debt very slowly in 
order that its interest bearing bonds might serve as a means of invest- 
ment for the people ; Jefferson proposed to use the j^ublic revenue to 
wipe out the national debt rapidly. Federalists stood for internal im- 
provements such as highways, etc., at federal expense ; the Republi- 
cans believed that each state should be left to make its own improve- 
ments at state expense. In short, the Federalists favored a loose con- 
struction, or interi)retation of the Constitution, whereby the national 
government reserved to itself all }>owers not expressly given to the 
states; the Republicans favored a policy of strict construction, or 
literal int(n*i)retation of the Constitution, whereby the several states 
should retain all ])Owers not expressly given to the national govern- 
ment by the Constitution. 

Jefferson had hardly been inaugurated, however, Ix'fore he was 
forced to abandon some of the most cherished of Rej^ublican ])rinciples. 
In spite of the fact that the President was willing to go to almost any 

68 



length to maintain peace, during the years from 1801 to 1805 condi- 
tions in the Mediterranean were intolerable. The pirates of Morocco, 
Algeria, Tunis, and Tripoli were capturing American merchant ships 
and enslaving their crews with impunity. Tripoli, in hope of obtain- 
ing a satisfactory tribute, finally declared war on the United States. 
Jefferson was then forced to use what little navy he had. For several' 
years American squadrons fought the Tripolitan pirates until they 
finally ceased to molest American commerce. Perhaps the most noted 
single exploit of these Barbary wars was Stephen Decatur's burning 
of the frigate Philadelphia, which had fallen into the hands of the 
Tripolitans. European nations had preferred to pay tribute to the 
pirates to insure the safety of their shipping rather than undertake 
to wipe out the menace by force. There is no doubt that our success- 
ful punitive expeditions to the Barbary countries had much to do with 
the increased prestige and respect accorded the United States abroad. 

The most important single event of Jefferson's administration 
was his purchase of Louisiana territory from France. At the close 
of the French and Indian War France had ceded to her ally Spain 
this immense tract of land, roughly triangular in shape and extending 
from the west bank of the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains. Dur- 
ing Washington's administration the United States, by the Pinckney 
Treaty, had acquired the right to unrestricted use of the Mississippi 
river. In 1800, by the secret treaty of San Udefonso, France again 
acquired Louisiana. It was now evident that the river was to be 
blocked to American trade. Jefferson, realizing the importance of 
acquiring the territory to maintain an outlet for trade from the states 
west of the mountains, cast aside his policy of strict adherence to the 
letter of the Constitution and began at once to negotiate with Napoleon 
for the purchase of the region. Having secured an appropriation from 
Congress, Jefferson sent James Monroe to Paris to aid our minister 
Livingston in the negotiation. At first Napoleon M'as loath to sell and 
rejected all offers. However, when news came to him of the defeat of 
a large French fleet in the West Indies by the British he suddenly 
changed his mind and accepted $15,000,000 for Louisiana. It is 
probable that he feared losing the territory by conquest on the part 
of the British if he delayed disposing of it. Furthermore, he was 
about to go to war against the allied nations of Europe and no douDt 
needed the purchase money to strengthen his armies for the straggle. 
Thus the territory of the United States was doubled at one stroke in 
1803. 

A few weeks after the cession of Louisiana Jefferson commissioned 
Captain Merriwether Lewis to explore the new territory as the head 

69 



of a scientific expedition. Associated with Lewis was Captain "William 
Clark, a younger brother of the famous George Rogers Clark. With 
a company of about forty men Lewis and Clark in 1804 made their 
way up the ^Missouri river and penetrated far into the Northwest. 
The party wintered at the headquarters of the Missouri and the fol- 
lowing spring portraged across the Great Divide, and, traversing an 
unexplored region, finally reached a tributary of the Columbia. This 
they followed for hundreds of miles and eventually reached the mouth 
of the great river, near Astoria, where an American trading post was 
soon established. This remarkable expedition was an important factor 
in our controversy with England over our claim to the Oregon coun- 
try many years later, since Lewis and Clark were the first white men 
to traverse that region. 

The purchase of Louisiana greatly strengthened tlic national gov- 
ernment in its relation to the state, for Congress immediately assumed 
and exercised control over this vast territory, greater by far than all 
of the original states combined. 

Strange to say, the acquisition of Louisiana by the United States 
did much to bring about the downfall of one of the foremost figures 
in public life at that time. Aaron Burr, who had contested with Jeffer- 
son for the Presidency in 1800, in 1804 shot and killed Alexander 
Hamilton, the great Federalist leader, his bitterest enemy. Follow- 
ing this fatal duel. Burr fled to the West to escape the just \\Tath of 
Hamilton's friends. While sojourning in the Ohio country, he seems 
to have conceived the scheme of setting up an independent state in the 
Southwest with New Orleans as its capital. Scores were interested in 
his plans, even General Wilkinson of the United States Army. Burr's 
plans were well laid but despite all precautions word of the conspiracy 
eventually reached President Jefferson. The setting up of a govern- 
ment by force of arms in territory belonging to the United States 
would constitute an act of treason, so Jefferson ordered Burr's arrest 
when lie thought he had secured sufficient evidence upon which to 
convict him. Wilkinson, 'Burr's accomplice, in order to save himself, 
basely deserted his leader and testified against him at the ensuing 
trial at which Chief Justice Marshall pri'sidi-d. To Jefferson's dis- 
appointment, the jury failed to convict Burr, although he stood con- 
demned by the (Country at large. But no verdict of guilty was needed 
to complete Burr's ruin. A political and social outcast he remained 
until his death. 

In Jefferson's second administration (1807) occurred the l)uild- 
ing of the first successful steamboat. Robert P^ilton launched the 
Clermont in tlic Hudson at New York, made a successful trial trip 

70 



to Albany and return, and thereafter his boats made regular trips, 
maintaining a much faster schedule than did the sailing packets of 
those days. Within two years scores of steamboats traversed the 
waterways of cur country. No other factor contributed as much to 
the development of the new West, or the region of the Mississippi 
Valley and the Great Lakes, as did the steamboat. A trip from the 
Ohio to New Orleans was now a matter of days rather than of weeks 
as formerly. Almost every river of the West provided a smooth high- 
way to markets now readily accessible for the settlers that emigrated 
by thousands to the rich lands beyond the mountains. Freight rates 
that had been practically prohibitive under cruder methods of trans- 
portation now fell rapidly, bringing prosperity to every section of 
the West. 

Jefferson's second administration is marked by the beginning of 
the difficulties with foreign nations that led slowly l)ut surely to the 
War of 1812. With a renewal of the European wars, interference 
with neutral trade began again. Our ships M^ere seized on one pretext 
or another and their cargoes confiscated. Our sailors were impressed 
on the pretext that they were deserters from foreign navies when, 
in fact, many of them were born in this country. The chief offenders 
in this respect were England and France, particularly England. 
With the expiration of Jay's Treaty, the United States was left with 
no commercial treaty with England, nor could she obtain one. A num- 
ber of arbitrary rulings were made by the British aimed for the most 
part at American commerce. Affairs reached a crisis about 1807. 
England by her Orders in Council set up a "paper" blockade of the 
French coast. Napoleon retaliated in his famous Berlin and Milan 
Decrees declaring the whole British Isles in a state of blockade. The 
effect of these acts was practically to ruin American commerce. Even 
on the high seas American ships were seized by the French if going to 
English ports and by the British if bound for French ports. 

With a navy wholly inadequate for its needs, the United States 
seemed helpless in the face of these indignities. Affairs reached a 
crisis in 1807 when the British frigate Leopard attacked the United 
States ship Chesapeake off the Virginia capes, disabled her and seized 
a number cf American citizens. Action of some kind on the part of 
our government was now imperative. War would drive off the seas 
what remained of American commerce, so Jefferson determined to 
bring England and France to terms by cutting off their sources of raw 
materials. In the latter part of 1807, the Embargo Act was passed, 
prohil)iting the sailing of American ships for foreign ports. Jefferson 
had, however, overestimated the effect that this economic weapon ex- 

71 



erted on Europe. The Embargo Act merely served as a boomerang to 
complete the destruction of the New England ship owners' prosperity. 
Ships and cargoes now rotted at the wharves, and the New England 
States were incensed almost to the point of open rebellion. After a 
year of the embargo smuggling had increased to such an extent that 
Congress repealed the act, and substituted for it the Non- Intercourse 
Act, which permitted trade with all foreign countries excei)t Great 
Britain and France. This Act relieved to some extent the hardships 
endured by the shipping class. 

In the election of 1808 James Madison, Jefferson's Secretary of 
State, won an overwhelming victory over C. C. Pinckney, the P'ederal- 
ist candidate. 

JAMES MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 

1809-1817. 

"When James Madison entered the Presidency in 1809, he found 
that the temper of the American people, with the exception of the New 
I]nglanders, favored war to regain and maintain our commercial 
rights at sea. While both France and England had preyed on Ameri- 
can commerce, feeling in this comitry was strongest against the latter. 
Furthermore, it was felt that tlie British in Canada were; to a great 
extent, responsible for the Indian disorders on our western frontiers. 
In 1811 Tecumseh, a noted Indian chief, had about completed a fed- 
eration of all the tribes east of the Mississippi, when General William 
Henry Harrison, Governor of Indiana Territory, forced the is.sue by 
attacking a large force of Indians led by The Proi)het, a brother of 
Tecumseh. In this battle, known as the battle of Tippecanoe, Harri- 
son completely defeated the savages and thus broke up Tecumseh 's 
plan of uniting the tribes. 

In tlie South Fort ^linnns was captured by the Creek Indians and 
nearly 500 whites were massacred. A little later troops under General 
Andrew Jackson practically crushed the Indian pawer in this region. 
AVliether or not the British had directly influenced tlie Ijidians to rise 
against the whites, the fact remains that the peojile of the United 
States believed that such was tlie case, and resentment against the 
British grew stronger. 

In !May, ISll, the American frigate President was fired upon by 
the British sloop of war Little Belt. An engagement followed, which 
resulted in the surrender of the Little Belt. This affair was regarded 
as a fitting revenge for the Chesapeake and Leopard indignity of 1807. 

The new Congress which met in December. 1811, chose Henry 
Clay, of Kentucky, Speaker of the House. A man of the West, who 



had little respect for the timidity exhibited in the East, he at onee 
began to organize Congress on a basis for war. In June, 1812, war was 
declared against Great Britain. The cause of the war may be summed 
up as follows: (1) The activities of British warships along our 
coasts; (2) the capture of nearly a thousand American vessels since 
1803; (3) blockades, etc., under the British Orders in Council; (4) 
impressment of American seamen; and (5) the instigating of Indian 
hostilities. 

THE WAR OF 1812. 

The United States government in 1812 was ill-fitted to carry on war 
against a first-class power. Thanks to the policy of Jefferson, our navy 
consisted of less than a score of warships, all of which were small and 
poorly outfitted. England had over a thousand war vessels, of which 
a considerable part were available for service against the United 
States. Our regular army was insignificant in size and not very effi- 
cient at that. Raw state militia, led by untrained and inexperienced 
officers, was depended upon to augment the regular forces. A large 
element in the Federalist party was openly hostile to the aims of the 
Administration, and the New England States were none too loyal. 

The American plan of the war was to invade Canada via the 
Great Lakes and thus strike at Great Britain at her most vulnerable 
point. At the same time the navy, assisted by privateers, was to inflict 
all possible damage upon British commerce at sea. 

Progress op the War During 1812. 

I. Hostilities on the Great Lakes. 

(a) General William Hull surrendered Detroit and all Michi- 
gan Territory to the British general Brock (August). This 
loss was a crushing blow to the Americans, since it enabled 
the British to invade the countr}'- south of Lake Erie and 
thus to protect Canada on the west. 

(b) Battle of Queenstown Heights (Oct.) An American force 
under General Van Renssaelaer attempted to invade Can- 
ada by way of the Niagara river. Due to a refusal of the 
New York State militia to leave the state, several hundred 
men who had already crossed the river received no support 
and fell easy prey to General Sheaffe, who had succeeded 
General Brock in command of the British. 

(c) Americans under General Jacob Brown defeated a small 
force of British who had crossed the St. Lawrence near 
Ogdensburg, New York. This slight victory was the only 
success scored by the American army during the year 1812. 

73 



II. Hostilities on the Sea. 

(a) The United States frigate Essex, Capt. David Porter, cap- 
tured the British sloop of war Alert. 

(b) The American frigate Constitution, Capt. Isaac Hull, cap- 
tun (1 tlie Guerriere, Capt. Dacres. This engagement, which 
occurred near the Gul of St. Lawrence, is one of tht' most 
famous of the war. 

(c) The Wasp, Capt. Jacob Jones, captiii-cd the British ship 
Frolic, l)oth vessels being taken on the same day, however, 
by the British frigate, Poictiers. 

(d) The United States, Capt. Stephen Decatur, took the 
enemy's frigate Macedonian. 

(e) The Constitution again i)ut to sea, this time under Capt. 
Bainbridge, and sank the British ship Java. This com- 
pletes a list of almost unbroken victories for the ships of 
our navy during the year 1812. These achievements at sea 
helped to offset the reverses suffered on land during this 
year. Moreover, American privateers, far more numerous 
than the ships of the navy, were scouring the seven seas in- 
flicting terrific damage to Great Britain's merchant marine. 

Progress of the War During 1813. 
I. Hostilities on the Great Lakes. 

(a) The year 1813 opens with the American forces still striving 
to gain a foothold in Canada. In April General Dearborn 
captured York, now Toronto. 

(b) Attempting to advance down the St. Lawrence upon iVIon- 
treal. General Wilkinson suffered a severe defeat at the 
hands of the British at Chrystler's Field. 

(c) Battle of Lake Erie. This was by far the most important 
event of the year. At the beginning of the war Oliver 
Hazard Perry, a young naval officer, was given the task of 
building a fleet on Lake Erie in order to wrest control of 
the lake from the British who had in the region a fleet un- 
<ier command of Commodore Barclay. Perry completed his 
fleet in the summer of 1813 and immediately set out in 
search of the British. In September the two fleets nu^t at 
Put-in-Bay in northern Ohio. After a sharp figlit Perry 
captured the enemy's entire force. This victory broke the 
British line of communication with Canada and compelled 
their army under General Proctor, operating south of Lake 
Erie, to retire hurriedly into Canada. 

74 



(d) In the meantime several engagements had been fought 
south of Lake Erie. A thousand Kentuckians under Gen- 
eral Winchester were defeated on the River Raisin by Gen- 
eral Proctor. Proctor then allowed his Indian allies to 
massacre many of the wounded and captured. 

(e) Proctor now attempted to take Fort Stephenson, which was' 
defended by Major Croghan with part of General Harri- 
son's army. Croghan used his single piece of artillery so 
effectively that the British drew off after having suffered 
severe losses. 

(f) Harrison with the main American force remained at Fort 
Meigs. After Perry's victory on Lake Erie he broke camp 
and set out in pursuit of General Proctor, who had alian- 
doned Michigan Territory to flee into Canada. Having been 
ferried across the lake, Harrison's force overtook Proctor 
on the River Thames in Ontario. Here Harrison won a not- 
able victory in what is known "as the battle of the Thames. 
This engagement settled the matter of our recovery of De- 
troit and Michigan Territory and closed the campaign in 
the West. 

II. Hostilities on the Sea. 

(a) The Hornet, Lieut. James Lawrence, sank the British ship 
Peacock. 

(b) The ill-fated Chesapeake, commanded also by Lawrence, 
was defeated off Boston harbor by the British ship 
Shannon, Capt. Broke. Lawrence, more brave than dis- 
creet, had engaged the Shannon when the Chesapeake had 
but half a crew and most of them untrained. 

(c) The American ship Argus, Capt. Allen, was taken while 
cruising in the English channel by the English brig Peli- 
can. 

(d) The American brig Enterprise captured the British ship 
Boxer. 

Progress of the War During 1814, 

I. Hostilities on Land. 

(a) In July, 1814, General Scott with part of General Brown's 
force repulsed a British force under General Riall near 
Niagara Falls. 

75 



(b) A few days later the two forces again engaged, this time at 
Lundy's Lane within sound of Niagara. Both armies suf- 
fered lieavy losses, and after fighting far into the night, 
eacli withdrew without having gained any material advan- 
tage. L 

(c) General Drummond, with part of the British force, now at- 
tempted to storm Fort Erie, but was easily repulsed. 

(d) After two years of fruitless effort on the part of the Ameri- 
can forces to invade Canada, tiiey now in turn had to d*. - 
fend the United States from invasion. In order to establish 
a military base in New York state, the British determined ta 
send a strong force in by way of the Richelieu river and 
Lake Champlain. Should they be successful, New York and 
the New England cities would be menaced seriously. 

(e) Having advanced as far as Lake Champlain, the British 

progress was decisively checked. Sir George Prevost here 
suffered a double defeat. His fleet under Ccmmodore 
Downie surrendered to Commodore McDonough, who com- 
manded an American flotilla ; his army was repulsed it 
Plattsburg by Generals ]\lacomb and Izard. 

(f) Wiiile these events were transpiring on the northern border, 

the country around Chesapeake bay had fallen prey to the 
enemy. A lull in the Napoleonic wars made a large force 
of British availa])le for direct attack on our Atlantic coast. 
Under General Ross an ex]>editi()n n^aehed tiie Chesapeake 
in August of 181-4. The British found the city of AVasliing- 
ton practically unprotected. General Winder, it is true, 
made an attempt to defend the city with a few liundred 
men, but his little force was badly beaten at Bladensburg. 
So suddenly did the enemy enter the city that the Presi- 
dent himself barely escaped. After burning the capitol 
and other |)ul)lic l)ui]dings, the British retired to the fleet 
in the Chesapeake. 

(g) Ross now turned his attention to the capture of Baltimore. 
Having sailed up the bay, he huided his forces at the mouth 
of the Patapseo and ])egan liis march upon the city. A 
large fleet under Admiral Cochrane was to take Fort Me- 
Henry and cooperate in the attack on the eity. At North 
Point Ross met the IMaiyland militia under General Striek- 
er. The Americans were being slowly driven back, when 
Ross fell, mortally wounded. IMeanwhile, the fleet had 
failed to pass the ginis of Fort ]\I('Henry, which was pnt- 

76 



ting up a spirited defense of the city. It was during the 
bombardment of the fort that Francis Scott Key was in- 
spired to write "The Star-Spangled Banner." The failure 
of the water attack and the death of Ross now caused the 
enemy to abandon their plan, and soon after this they left 
the Chesapeake, 
(h) Early in 1814 commissioners had been sent to Europe in 
response to Great Britain's peace overtures. In December, 
1914, by the Treaty of Ghent, peace was again restored be- 
tween the two countries. Before the news reached America, 
however, the greatest battle of the war was fought. In the 
fall of 1814, General Pakenham was sent wi<h a strong 
force to seize New Orleans, the key to the Mississippi Val- 
ley. The purpose of the enemy was to paralyze American 
trade in the region, and to hold Louisiana for exchange at 
the close of the war for territory in the Northwest. 

General Andrew Jackson, commander of the American 
forces south of the Ohio, hastily prepared to defend New 
Orleans. With a few thousand backwoodsmen and militia 
he took up his position below the city and there awaited 
the onslaught of Pakenham 's veterans. After a few days 
of artillery action the British advanced to the assault early 
in January, 1915. To the surprise of the British, Jackson 
repulsed the attack with terrible slaughter. Over two 
thousand of the invaders were killed, wounded and cap- 
tured, while Jackson lost less than fifty in the entire fight- 
ing. Pakenham was killed and his successor lost no time 
in retiring from Louisiana. 
II. Hostilities on the Sea During 1814. 

By 1814 American aggression at sea was confined chiefly 
to the work of privateers. The enormous superiority in 
number of the ships of the British navy had resulted in 
most of the ships of the American navy being bottled up in 
the harbors along the Atlantic coast, or in their having fall- 
en into the hands of the enemy. Several navy yards had 
been seized and destroyed by the British raiders. Still the 
privateers, avoiding the enemy's warships, continued to 
harass British merchantmen. In all nearly 2.000 British 
sliips fell to American seamen. The most notable event on 
the sea during the year was the loss of the Essex, Captain 
David Porter. She was taken in the neutral harl)or of Val- 
paraiso after a desperate engagement with two British 
ships, the Phoebe and the Cherub. 

77 



The Treaty of Ghent. 

After the heavy lass sustained at sea by the British coraraercial 
class, it is little wonder that such pressure was brought to bear on the 
government to stop the war that an agreement favorable to the Ignited 
States was readied by tlie Treaty of Ghent. This treaty is more noted 
for what it faihMl (h'finiteiy to stii)idate than for its actual terms. The 
settlement provided for a pre-war status for botii countries, but it was 
well understood that the United States had demonstrated its right to 
have, and its ability to maintain, freedom of the seas for its commerce. 
There was now no danger of further abridgment of American rigiits 
such as pertained to confiseation or impressment. 

Events op Madison's Administr.vtion After the AVar. 

The declaration of the war by the votes of the Southern and West- 
ern States seemed to the New England Federalists the climax of a long 
list of impositions. The war had prolonged tlie harm done New Rng- 
land sliipping begun by the P^mbargo and Non-Intercourse Acts. At 
the suggestion of Masachusetts these states sent delegates to meet at 
Hartford late in 1814, for the announced purpose of denouncing the 
ruinous policy of the Administration in its conduct of the war, and to 
suggest amendments to the Constitution tliat would lessen the grow- 
ing power of the South and the West. The delegates met in secret 
debate and, it is believed, considered the advisability of seceding from 
the Union as an alternative to their demands. However, the messen- 
gers sent to demand redress at Washington arrived at an iiiopi>ortune 
time, for the news had just come of the victory at New Ork'ans and of 
the Treaty of Ghent. Despairing for the success of their cause, the 
envoys returned to New England, and the agitation soon subsideil. 
Tile Hartford Convention marks the downfall of tlie Federalist I'arty. 

Indirectly the years of restriction of New England trade benefit e*] 
the nation as a whole. Capital that ordinarily would have been in- 
vested in shipping was now used to develop the manufacturing re 
sources of the section. Prior to the war the influx of foreign made 
goods luid discouraged manufacturing in this country. Now a 'sofe 
market was assured if foreign goods were not to be allowed to flood 
the country at low prices at the conclusion of hostilities. Conserjuent- 
ly, to protect our rising industries from the products of ill-paid Euro- 
pean workmen. Congress passed its first jn'oteetive tariff act in 1816. 
The tariff of 1816 raised the tax on dutiable imports to approximately 
20 per cent. 

Taking advantage of the fact that the United States was engaged 
in war, tlie Harbary pirates again became troublesome and a fleet had 

78 



to he dispatched against thein at the close of the war. This difficulty 
is frequently known as the war with Algiers. 

The downfall of the Federalist party left only the Repul)lican 
party of Jefferson and Madison. Madison's Secretary of State, James 
Monroe, succeeded him as Presidents by the election of 1816. Under 
Monroe, one of the last of the old Revolutionary heroes, it was felt that 
a reconciliation might be eflfected between New England and the rest 
of the country. 

JAMES MONROE 'S ADMINISTRATION. 
1817-1825. 

With the election of James Monroe was ushered in that political 
period in American history known as the "Era of Good Feeling." 
Not a cloud was discernable on the political horizon. All factions were 
united. No European problems vexed the government. The success- 
ful ending of the War of 1812 left us not merely politically free from 
Europe but had gained for us social, economic, and industrial inde- 
pendence. The period was marked by the beginning of a true Ameri- 
can literature. William Cullen Bryant, Washington Irving, James 
Fenimore Cooper, — the works of all of these were worthy to rank with 
the best that the Old World produced. Monroe, a few weeks after his 
inauguration, toured the country and everywhere was met with en- 
thusiasm that augured well for the political future of the nation. The 
war with Great Britain had nationalized the Republican party to the 
extent that it was practically supreme. 

Yet what to a casual observer appeared to be an era of good feel- 
ing was, in reality, but the calm that precedes the storm. Just under 
the surface of American politics were beginning to seethe those con- 
troversies incident to sectional discord that years later led to the 
Civil War. The question of control of slavery was fast becoming a 
paramount issue. 

War with the Seminoles in Florida for a time occupied the atten- 
tion of the administration. Aided by a few renegade whites and out- 
laws, the Seminoles were using Spanish East Florida for a rendezvous 
from which to attack nearby American settlements in Georgia and 
Alabama. General Andrew Jackson was sent against the Indians, and 
with his usual aaggressiveness pursued them into Spanish territory, 
captured the ringleaders and hanged them. This move led to our 
acquisition of East Florida because of. the likelihood of troublesome 
complications arising with Spain. Thus in 1819 Florida was added to 
the United States by purchase, for the sum of $5,000,000. 

79 



The Missouri Compromise. 

The question of the extension of slavery came uppermost when in 
1818 Missouri i)etitionecl for admission into the Union. Tlie bill came 
up in Congress early in 1819 and an anti-slavery amendment was in- 
troduced by Representative Tallmadge of New York. The amend- 
ment passed the House by a close vote but was rejected by the Sen- 
ate, where the slave-holdinjr states held the balance of i)Ower. Thus 
the bill went over to the next Congress. 

During the summer of 1819 the rival forces kept continually be- 
fore the people the question of slavery in Missouri. Congressional 
aspirants were elected or failed of election dependent upon their atti- 
tudes on Missouri. To realize fully why such importance was at- 
tached to the slavery question in ^Missouri one need but consider that 
Missouri was the first to seek admission as a state from the region west 
of the Mississippi ; and furthermore, at the time of her application, 
thei*e were represented in Congress eleven free states and eleven slave- 
holding states. The admission of Missouri as either a free or a slave 
state would establish a i)n'eedent as regards slavery in states later 
carved from the Louisiana Purchase. If Missouri came into the Union 
as a free state, it would enable the free states to maintain majorities in 
both the Senate and in the House of Representatives, and in all jirob- 
ability enable the passing of almost any anti-slavery legislation. Hence 
the South 's desperate struggle to admit the new state with slavery in 
order to maintain that section's power in Congress. 

When Congress met again late in 1819 the IMissouri bill was again 
introduced. At the same time a bill was introduced for the admission 
of Maine. Both bills pa.ssed tlie House, the ilissouri bill being again 
amended to prohibit slavery. The Senate united the bills into one but, 
instead of the House ]u-ohibition, acc('i>ted Henry Clay's plan, voiced 
by Senator Thomas of Illinois, providing that IMissouri be admitted 
as a slave state, but that all other states made from the Louisiana 
territory north of 36° SO' north latitude, the southern boundary of 
Missouri, be forever free .states. This was the real comin*omise feature 
of the bill. When the measure went back to the House for its approval, 
that body again separated the two bills, each state to be admitted 
separately, and Missouri to retain the compromi.se feature as intro- 
duce by Thomas. This compromise over ^Missouri is frequently known 
as the "Compromise of 1820." Maine was admitted at once, while 
Missouri l>ecame a part of the Union a few months later after her 
constitution had undergone certain minor changes. 

It now appeared that the menace to the Union arising from the 
slavery question had been settled for all time. Indeed, for thirty 

^0 



years the line of 36° 30' north latitude served as a barrier to the exten- 
sion of slavery. The question was again opened, however, a few years 
before the Civil War, when the South began to realize fully how ad- 
vantageous to the North the Missouri Compromise actually was. 
The Monroe Doctrine (1823). 
In the latter part of Monroe's second administration the United 
States government found itself confronted by a peculiar problem aris- 
ing from the fact that European nations were about to encroach on 
territory in North and South America. Most of Spain's former colo- 
nies in South America had successfully revolted against Spanish rule 
and had had their independence recognized by the United States. 
The formation in Europe of the "Holy Alliance," a coalition of 
Austria, Prussia, Russia and France, now threatened to disturb the 
status of these new republics. The Alliance seemed about to aid 
Spain to recover her lost colonies. At the same time Russia showed a 
disposition to override our claims to the Oregon country by laying 
claim to the entire Pacific coast. England now proposed to the United 
States that the two nations act jointly in blocking the plans of the 
Holy Alliance. To John Quincy Adams, Monroe's able Secretary of 
State, it seemed that the United States, as the most powerful nation 
of the western hemisphere, should act alone in formulating a policy 
that would protect the New World from further colonization or con- 
quest. After some difficulty he persuaded President Monroe of the 
wisdom of this course. 

Monroe's message to Congress, 1823, therefore, embodied the 
famous "Monroe Doctrine," — a statement of the policy of the United 
States toward the territory and government of the rest of the Ameri- 
can continents. Copies of the doctrine in the form of notes were trans- 
mitted to the various European governments. The message declared, 
in substance, that the continents of the Western Hemisphere were 
henceforth not to be considered as subjects for colonization or conquest 
by any European powers; that the United States was determined not 
to meddle in European politics nor to disturb existing possessions of 
European powers in the New World; but that any attempt on the 
part of such powers to extend their dominions on this side of the 
Atlantic would be considered an act unfriendly to the United States 
and dangerous to our peace and safety. 

The Monroe Doctrine had immediate effect. No European na- 
tion was prepared to risk war with the United States. Russia ceased 
encroaching on the Pacific coast, the Holy Alliance gave up its designs 
on South America, and France abandoned, for a time at least, her plan 
of seizing Mexico. 

81 



TxTEKXAL Improvements. 

Fii tlie reaction following the War of 1812 economic and social 
conditions changed materially. Immigration from Europe and emi- 
gration to the West had their effects in the democratic tendencies ap- 
parent in all phases of American life. The new West was making 
felt its influence in politics and in breaking down the old Puritan 
traditions and prejudices. Transportation problems were being 
solved by the construction of good .turnpikes and canals. The Erie 
Canal, which was to link the Ea.st with the West commercially, was 
nearing completion at the end of ^lonroe's second term. WhfMi the 
aged Lafayette visited America in 1824 he was amazed at the progress 
made along all lines. 

What had seemed a high protective tariff in 1816 was in 1824 
thought too low. Hence in that year Congress raised the duties from 
20 per cent to a 33 per cent average, at the urgent appeals from the 
North and the West, 

JOHN QUINCY ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION. 
1825-1829. 

The campaigns for tlie Presidency in 1824 did not nuirk a party 
struggle, but a struggle of sections. There were four candid itcs, 
Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, John Quincy Adams, and Senator 
Crawford of Georgia, each representing his own section of the country. 
None of these aspirants was acce])table to the nation at large. As a 
consequence there was no popular choice for President, since no candi- 
date received a majority of the votes cast. The House of Representa- 
tives was left to decide and finally chose Adams. 

Adams' terin of office was marked by no very great or stirring 
events, but the breach between the commercial interests of the North 
and the agricultural interests of the South widened rapidly during 
this time. In spite of the temporary unifying effect of our second 
war with Great Britain it was not until after the Civil War that the 
riiited States becaine a real or a.ssured Union. New England had l)e- 
come to a great extent a inanufacturing section, fostered by protective 
tariff. Affairs finally reached a crisis over the matter of the tariff. 
TTnder the Constitution duties on foreign imports must be unitorm for 
all sections. Conse(}uently, when the appeals of the manufaeturnig 
cla.ss of the North had been met by one protective tariff after another, 
each higher than the preceding one, the South was moved to protest 
bitterly. For years that section had raised staples which were ex- 
])orted to Europe and exchanged for European manufactured goods. 

82 



As a result of the protective tariffs, the South got less and less in the 
way of foreign goods for every dollar's worth of raw material ex- 
ported. A protective tariff soon becomes a burden to a section that 
has little or nothing to protect. With the tariff act of 1828, known to 
the South as the "Tariff of Abominations," tariff legislation in this 
country reached its highwater mark for the period prior to the Civil 
War. 

The struggle to secure Western trade, engaged in by the various 
Atlantic seaboard cities, at last was definitely won by New York when 
in 1825 the great canal connecting the Hudson river with Lake Erie 
was completed. Due to the far-sightedness of the canal's great 
promoter, DeWitt Clinton, New York City now took the lead as 
America's foremost commercial city. The cheapness of water car- 
riage compelled the freighters on the turnpike roads to lower their 
charges in order to meet competition, and at the same time also made 
it probable that canals would supersede overland transportation for 
heavy freights. Thus was effected a revolution in methods of trans- 
portation to be repeated a few decades later when the steam railroads 
came into their own. In 1825 the Ohio canal, connecting the Ohio 
river with Lake Erie, was begun. At about the same time the Chesa- 
peake and Ohio canal was extended to Washington. 

Hardly had the canal proved its worth as a means of transporta- 
tion when railroads began to appear. A railroad for horse-drawn 
cars was built from Philadelphia to the Susquehanna, and work was 
begun on what later became a part of the Baltimore and Ohio System. 
In 1830 the first steam raiiroad was put into operataion between Balti- 
more and Ellicott Mills, a village a few miles from the city. 

In the Presidential election of 1828 Andrew Jackson was chosen 
by a large majority to succeed Adams. The growing West had at last 
triumphed over the conservative East and common people of the 
country had at last obtained a satisfying share in the national gov- 
ernment. The present Democratic party has its real origin in the 
victory of Andrew Jackson and his followers. 

ANDREW JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 

1829-1837. 

The festivities attendant on Jackson's inauguration were typical 
of the new democratic spirit that had swept him into office. Washing- 
ton was thronged with a motley crowd such as had never before been 
seen in that city. Frontiersmen in picturesque attire and backwoods- 
men in homespun with muddy boots rubbed elbows with cultured 
aristocrats and shrewd Eastern business men. 

83 



As a Prfsideiit, Jackson exhibited intense patriotism, was the 
soul of lionesty, and had the courage of his convictions. But he was 
a military man, not a statesman. Pie had no patience with opinions 
contrary' to his own, could see but one side of any question and con- 
sequently lacked calm, unbiased judprment. Like most of our military 
l)residents, he often allowed himself to be influenced in his acts by 
clever politicians whose motives were not above reproach. However, 
once having: made up his mind, he brooked no interference from friend 
or foe. After having: selected a cabinet that met the approval of his 
party, he ig:nored these official advisers and surrounded himself \\'ith 
.vn unofficial body of personal friends, which was derisively known as 
"Jackson's Kitchen Cabinet." 

During: the "reign" of Jackson there were to be found in Wash- 
ingrton some of the ablest and most famous fig:ures in American ])oliti- 
cal history. Chief among: these were Ilenrv Clay of Kentucky ; Daniel 
AVebster, the great New England orator and champion of nationalism ; 
Robert Y. Hayne, spokesman for the radical nullification element in 
the South ; and ^Martin Van liuren. Secretary of State, an a.stute party 
leader and Jackson's right-hand man. Equal to, any of the above in 
ability and reputMion, and by far the greatest leader in the South, was 
John C. Calhoun, the A^ice-President. Calhoun was the real leader 
of the nullification faction, of which Hayne was spokesman. 

With Jackson's inauguration came the beginning in national 
politics of the practise expressed in the phrase, "To the victors belong 
the spoils." So eager were the supporters of the new democracy for 
substantial reward in tlie form of political, appointments that noth- 
ing would satisfy them but a wholesale turning out of office of those 
appointees who had held over from former administrations. This 
pernicious "S))oils System" started by Jackson was followed by suc- 
ceeding presidents for the next half century, or until the Civil Sei'vice 
legislation became effective. Since Jackson made appointments to 
]>ublic office rewards for party service, naturally very little attention 
was paid to fitness or character of the appointee. The workings of 
the government were eonseciuciitly impeded in many cases by such 
political deadwood. 

NULLIFIC.\TI()N TN SoiTTH CAROLINA. 

The South had been furious at the succes.sful attempt of the North 
and West to inflict on it the Tariff' of Abominations in 1S28, and had 
been ready for almost any step, however drastic. But Calhoun and the 
more mcderate element urgetl that action be suspentled until an op- 
portunity should be had of gauging the new president's attitude in 

84 



the matter. The anti-protective forces had not long to wait. At a 
public dinner in 1830 Jackson's utterances classed him unmistakably 
a supporter of nationalism and a friend of protective tariff. A few 
weeks later Jackson broke off relation with Calhoun after a private 
quarrel. In 1832 a new tariff was passed, but most of the objectionable 
features of the tariff of 1828 remained. 

Immediately thereafter matters came to a crisis. In November, 
1832, South Carolina passed an ordinance declaring the tariff acts of 
1828 and 1832 to be "null, void, and no law, nor binding upon this 
state, its officers or citizens. ' ' The state urged its citizens lu resist any 
attempt of the national government to collect duties at the port of 
Charleston and elsewhere in the state. At the same time South Caro- 
lina began to raise troops. 

The President now acted with commendable promptness. Gen- 
eral Scott was sent to Charleston to defend the custom house and a 
proclamation was issued warning the people of South Carolina against 
the illegal and disorganizing action of its convention. An act known 
as the ' ' Force Bill ' ' was passed by Congress empowering the President 
to raise forces to meet the crisis. However, South Carolina was not 
to become the scene of armed conflict. Under the leadership of Henry 
Clay, Congress at length passed the Tariff Compromise of 1833, which 
provided for a gradual reduction of the tariff until the rates should 
have reached 20 per cent. This process of reduction was to cover a 
period of ten years in order that the manufacturing interests of the 
North might the more easily adjust themselves to the change. The 
object of the South 's nullilication action having been accomplished, 
the state of South Carolina repealed its ordinance and all plans of 
resistance were dropped. 

Jackson and the United States Bank. 

Jackson came into office with a pronounced antipathy to the 
United States Bank. Representing the West as he did, and being un- 
der the influence of several hundred powerful rivals of the govern- 
ment institution in the form of state banks, Jackson easily allowed 
himself to develop a firm conviction that the United States Bank was 
a menace to the interests of the people. He believed that its private 
stockholders were amassing enormous wealth at the expense of the 
common people from the use of the government funds. The charter 
of the bank was to expire during Jackson's term, so when in 1832 a 
bill was passed providing for the rechartering of the bank, the Presi- 
dent vetoed it. Then without waiting for the bank's charter to expire,, 
Jackson withdrew the government funds and distributed this public 

85 



money in accordance with liis own plan. The substance of Jackson's 
belief was that the government money in reality belonged to the peo- 
ple and that the people should have an opportunity of using it. Con- 
sequently, he began to distribute the funds among various state or 
*'pet" banks. 

In the main, Jackson was right in his attitude toward the United 
States Bank, but unfortunately for the country, his opposition was 
destructive rather than constructive in its effect. 

Having destroyed the United States Bank, he now substituted a 
system even worse. When the word went out that Jackson had govern- 
ment funds to distribute to state banks scores of such institutions were 
hurriedly organized with the view to sharing in the use of the public 
money. Many of these "wild cat" enterprises were basically un- 
sound and were conducted by irresponsible officers and boards of 
directors. Since a bank makes its money by lending money and 
charging interest on its loans, these " wild cat" organizations were 
more interested in putting out the government money at a high rate 
of interest than in lending it on good security. Con.sequently, the 
people found money ea.sy to obtain, and speculation and extravagance 
was soon rife throughout the country. The "pet" banks backed specu- 
lators in western lands, cotton, railroads, manufacturing enterprises, 
etc., to such an unprecedented extent that a financial crash was 
inevitable. 

At length the government became alarmed for the safety of its 
money and issued a call on the banks that had received government 
deposits. This precipitated what is known as the Panic of 1837. 
While it occurred at the beginning of the administration of Jackson's 
successor, VanBuren, it was a direct result of the ill-advised policies 
of Jackson himself. The banks could not return the money since it 
had passed into the hands of private individuals and business cor- 
porations. The suspension of payment on the part of the banks 
brought about the failure of private enterprises throughout the coun- 
try, threw thousands out of work, and left ruin and hardship in its 
wake. Eventually it brought about the defeat of the Democratic partv 
in 1840. 

Indian Wars. 

For several years prior to the election of Jackson the govern- 
ment had had trouble with the Creeks and Cherokees, particularly in 
Georgia, when for some time that state had been engaged in a bitter 
controversy with the tribes over the matter of land ces.sions. In 1834 
Congress removed the Creeks and Cherokees, together with neighbor- 

86 



ing tribes, to reservations west of the Mississippi. A similar policy 
of removal applied to the tribes of the Northwest had in 1832 resulted 
in a short war in Illinois and Iowa, known as "Black Hawk's War.^' 
A part of the Seminoles persisted in remaining in Florida and for 
several years defied the United States army and cost the government 
over $20,000,000. This is known as the "Second Seminole War." 

Foreign Affairs Under Jackson. 

Largely through the energetic efforts of Jackson, the United States 
at last succeeded in collecting the French Spoliation Claims or claims 
for damage inflicted on our shipping by the French during the years 
immediately prior to the War of 1812. 

Still more gratifying than the settlement of the long standing 
claims against the French, was the reopening of trade with the British 
West Indies. Jackson, through his Secretary of State, Van Buren, 
won a complete diplomatic victory in the negotiations with Great 
Britain. 

Our relations with Mexico were strained during the whole of 
Jackson's administrations. This was natural since Texas, Mexico's 
northern province, was engaged in open revolt against the Mexican 
government, and was peopled largely by Americans. There is little 
doubt that troops sent to guard our southwestern border gave secret 
support to the Texan leader, Sam Houston. 

MARTIN VAN BUREN 'S ADMINISTRATION. 

1837-1841. 

The election of 1836 was in reality settled by Jackson himself 
weeks before. His determination to have Van Buren succeed him was 
but weakly opposed by his party. No sooner had Van Buren taken 
office than the disastrous Panic of 1837 broke over the country. With 
the exception of this financial depression (touched upon in the pre- 
ceding chapter) his administration was comparatively quiet and 
uneventful. 

One significant act of the administration was the establishing of 
the Independent Treasury to take the place of the United States Bank, 
which had fallen into disrepute under Jackson. After the Whig vic- 
tory of 1840, the Independent Treasury was temporarily set aside by a 
revival of the United States Bank. Polk, however, restored Van 
Buren 's treasury system and it has remained in force to the present 
time. 

By the Caroline Affair of 1837 the United States became involved 
in a heated quarrel with Great Britain over the right of New York 

87 



State to seize and hold for trial a Canadian named McLeod. The 
American steamer Caroline had been carrying food and supplies to a 
small band of Canadian revolutionists that had taken refuge on an 
island in the Niagara river. Failing to apprehend the Caroline on the 
Canadian side of the line, the Canadian officials seized her in a harbor 
in New York state, set fire to her, and let her drift down over Niagara 
Falls. In the excitement an American sailor was killed. ]\IcLeod, hav- 
ing boasted of his part in the affairs, was brought to trial in New York, 
charged with murder. Since New York had no power to treat witli 
Great Britain, and since the federal government had no control over 
New York in the matter, conditions were slowly shaping themselves 
for war between the two countries. McLeod 's acquittal resulted in the 
whole matter being dropped. 

The Rise of the Whig Party. 

During the decade prior to 1840 the anti-Jackson element among 
the voters had been working to perfect an opposition party. Taking 
the old Revolutionary name of Whig, the i)arty put several candi- 
dates in the field in the election of 1836 in a fruitless effort to defeat 
Van Bureii. The Panic of 1837 and its resultant period of hard times 
throughout the country materially affected tlie Whig fortunes, how- 
ever. Here was their opportunity, and they made the most of it. 
The campaign of 1840 came at a time when thousands of voters were 
inclined to attribute the hard times to the Democratic administration, 
and hence were willing to shift their party allegiance. The Demo- 
crats renominated Van Buren on a i)latform of opposition to the 
United States Bank, internal improvenicnt at national expense, higii 
tariff, etc. The Whigs, playing for favor in both the North and the 
Soutli, in their platform strongly favored the annexation of Texas and 
the acquisition of Oregon. In search of a candidate, they very 
shrewdly i)assed over Henry Clay. Daniel Wel)ster, and others of their 
leading men. Clay and Webster had been too long in national politics 
and had made too many enemies to be acceptable to the countrv' at 
large. Instead, the Whigs chose William Henry Harrison, a military 
hero, about whose political ideas i)eo])le knew very little. John Tyler, 
who could command the votes of the Clay faction, was to run for the 
Vice-Presidency. In what is known as the "Log Cabin, Hard Cider" 
'Campaign the slogan "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too" led the Whigs to 
victory. The Democrats were stunned by the Whig landslide shown 
when the returns came in a few hours after the election. Van Buren 
had received but 60 electoral votes to Harrison 's 234. 



THE HARRISON-TYLER ADMINISTRATION. 

1841-1845. 

President Harrison died exactly a month after his ijiaiiguialion 
and Vice-President Tyler succeeded to the Presidency. To the con- 
sternation of the Whigs Tyler now turned traitor to his party and re- 
fused to carry out the Whig pledges. The Whigs now disclaimed pll 
responsibility for the acts of the Administration and read the Presi- 
dent out of the party. Every member of his cabinet resigned except 
Daniel Webster, his Secretary of State. During the remainder of his 
term, Tyler was without a party. He tried to affiliate with the Demo- 
crats but without success for he had once been a Democrat and had de- 
serted that party to join the Whigs. 

During Tyler's administration occurred a serious disturbance in 
Rhode Island, known as "Dorr's Rebellion" (1842). Rhode Island 
was still using a modified form of her old Colonial charter as her Stat^ 
Constitution. Under this constitution only property holders had the 
right of suffrage. With the growth of popular government it was in- 
evitable that the non-property-hoiding element should demand the 
vote. A ''People's Party" was formed, a convention was held, and 
Thomas W. Dorr was chosen candidate for the governorship. He was 
declared elected by popular vote. In the meantime a governor had 
been elected in the usual manner by the regular voters. In order to 
break the resultant deadlock, Dorr and his followers attempted by 
force to take possession of the state property but failed. Dorr was • 
now tried for treason and sentenced to prison, but was eventually re- 
leased. He achieved his purpose, for Rhode Island immediately 
changed her constitution so as to admit his followers to the privilege 
so long denied them. 

In New York State another disturbance known as the Anti-Rent 
Trouble occurred when the holders of land in the old Dutch patroon- 
ages refused to pay longer an annual ground rent, or quitrent, to de- 
scendants of the old patroons. Rioting occurred in which state officers 
and rent collectors were assaulted and even killed in a number of in- 
stances. After several months of litigation, the matter was amicably 
adjusted by the landlords agreeing to release the tenants from further 
obligation upon payment of a lump sum. 

The indefinite wording of the treaty of 1783 had resulted in a 
long standing dispute with Great Britain over the boundary line of 
northeastern Maine. The efforts of Canadian and American settlers to 
drive each other from the disputed region resulted in a local disturb- 
ance sometimes known as the "Aroostook War." War with Great 

89 • 



Britain was impending when the Wel)ster-Ashui'ton Treaty (1S42) 
was eoneiiuied, which provided a satisfactory adjustment of the chiims 
of both nations. 

Texas had won her independence from Mexico in 1887 after the 
victory of San Jacinto. For several years slie existed as the Lone Star 
Republic. There was consideral)le sentiment in the I'nited States in 
favor of annexation but a treat.y to that effect was rejected by the 
Senate in the spring of !184-4. The arguments in favor of annexation 
may be summed up as follows: (1) that racially the inhal)itaiits of 
Texas were Americans; (2) that Texas was a country rich in resources 
which would add wealth to the Union; (8) that annexation was a na- 
tural and practical form of expansion ; and (4) that it would enable 
slave-holdi: • states to retain a needed control of the Senate. 

The ai' uments against the annexation of Texas, advanced chiefly 
by the anti-slavery people and the abolitionists, were as follows: (1) 
that it would bring into the Union more slave territory; (2) that it 
would give the slave states permanent control of the government ; and 
(3) that it would in all probability precipitate war with ]\Iexico. 

In 1844, Polk, the Democratic nominee for the Presidency, was 
elected on a platform pledging the annexation of Texas. Apparently 
a majority of the voters were in favor of the admission of Texas, so 
Congress and President Tyler waited no longer. A joint resolution 
admitting Texas as a state passed in March, 1845, and was signed by 
Tyler tlirce days before he went out of office. 

One of the greatest of modern inventions, the electric telegraph 
was first successfully tried out in 1844. Tn that year Samuel F. B. 
Morse, the inventor, used a $80,000 appropriation obtained from Con- 
gress to build a line from Baltimore to Washington. In a few years 
thousands of miles of wire attested the practical value of the inven- 
tion. 

In the election of 1844 the Whigs almost unanimously pinned 
their faith to Henry Clay. Van Buren was the logical candidate for 
the Democratic party, but when the two-thirds rule was adopted in 
convention he failed to secure the needed votes. Instead, James K, 
Polk of Tennessee, a sort of dark horse candidate, received tlie nomi- 
nation. A strong platform was adopted providing for the innnediate 
occupation of Oregon and the annexation of Texas. "Fifty-four 
Forty or Fight" proved an excellent campaign cry. and meant that 
the Democrats were willing to risk war with Fiiigland to maintain our 
claims to territory on the Pacific coast extending as far north as r)4° 
40' north latitude, or the present southern boundary of Alaska. For 
the first time in a national election the vote of the Abolitionist clement, 

• 90 



known as the Liberty Party, decided the election. The abolitionists 
split the Whig vote in New York to such an extent that Polk carried 
that pivoted state and the election. 

ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 

1845-1849. 

"Fifty-four Forty or Fight" having served its purpose as a cam- 
paign cry, the Democrats were now ready to deal on a reasonable basis 
with Great Britain concerning our Oregon claims. In June, 1846, 
Polk made a compromise settlement, accepting the 49th parallel as the 
division line between American and British Pacific coast territory. 

The Walker Tariff of 1846 with an average tax of 25 per cent on 
dutiable goods proved very acceptable to the country at large. This 
tariff remained in force for eleven years. 

One reason why Polk had been so willing to accept the 49th par- 
allel as a basis for settlement of our Oregon claims was that he had no 
intention of becoming involved in two w^ars at the same time. From 
the very first Polk had determined to add to the Union that part of 
Mexico lying in the Southwest and known as California and New Mex- 
ico. Attempts to persuade the Mexican government to sell to the 
United States this vast region having failed, Polk was now ready to 
find a pretext for waging war with Mexico. A plausible excuse for 
war soon presented itself. The United States with the annexation of 
Texas had naturally annexed Texas' quarrel with Mexico over the 
southern boundary line of that state. The Texans claimed as far south 
as the Rio Grande, while the Mexicans disputed Texan claims to the 
region south of the Nueces river. Polk now sent General Zachary 
Taylor with an army to occupy the disputed territory. The Mexicans 
likewise determined to occupy the region and advanced north of the 
Rio Grande. The inevitable collision between the two forces occurred 
in May, 1846, when on two successive days skirmishes known as Palo 
Alto and Resaca de la Palma were fought. The American forces were 
easily victorious, but Polk now^ had the opportunity he had for weeks 
been waiting for. He at once sent a message to Congress in which he 
declared that "American blood had been spilt on American soil," and 
that a state of war existed notwithstanding all efforts to avoid it. The 
people followed Polk 's lead and prepared to prosecute the war vigor- 
ously. General Taylor was ordered to cross the Rio Grande and in- 
vade northern Mexico while a force was organized for the seizure of 
California and New Mexico. 

In August, 1846, David Wilmot, Representative from Pennsyl- 
vania, precipitated a struggle in Congress that brought out clearly 
some of our real reasons for engaging in war with Mexico. To an ap- 

91 



propriation bill for war expenses, Wilmot attached a rider, or ameud- 
ment, known as the Wihnot Proviso, to the effect that slavery be for- 
ever excluded from any territory acquired from Mexico as a result of 
the war. The whole South blazed up in fierce opposition. The Wil- 
mot Proviso never became a law but the principle involved in it be- 
came the basis for years of sectional controversy. The whole affair 
made plain one of the reasons why Polk and his supporters in Con- 
gress were so determined to acquire the great Southwest. 

The Mexican War. 

The progress of the Mexican War may best be followed by a l)rief 
tracing of the three chief armies put in the field against Mexico. Gen- 
eral Taylor, with the Army of Occupation was to operate in the dis- 
tricts south of the Rio Grande ; General Kearny was to invade New 
Mexico and California and expel the Mexican forces from that region ; 
General Scott was sent to capture Vera Cruz and to force his way 
back from the coast with the purpose of capturing Mexico City, the 
capital. 

Following Palo Alto and Resaca de la Pal ma, General Taylor led 
his forces against Monterey. After a short siege tlie city fell into 
American hands. Monterey was the chief stronghold of nortliern 
Mexico and its capture greatly enhanced Taylor's popularity in tlie 
United States. Now General Taylor was a Whig and Polk had no 
intention of letting him become too great a figure in the eyes of Ameri- 
can voters. The President now ordered General Scott into Mexico and 
ordered Taylor to send the greater part of his force to aid Scott. This 
left the American force in northern Mexico hardly more than 5,000 
men. Santa Anna, the Mexican commander, deterinintMl to take ad- 
vantage of Taylor's weakened condition. Witli nearly 20,000 men he 
attacked the little American army at Buena Vista near Monterey. So 
vigorously did Taylor's force defend itself that not only were the 
Mexicans rei>ulsed, but by nightfall were fleeing in utter confusion. 
Unfortunately for Polk's liopes, Taylor now became the military idol 
of the American people. Buena Vista made him President of the 
United States by the election of 1848. 

Meanwhile Kearny's force penetrated into New IMexico and oc- 
-cupied Santa Fe without resistance. Kearny was then ordered to 
proceed to California to take possession of that region. Arriving at 
Los Angeles, he learned that the Americans in that country, under the 
leadership of the noted explorer John C. Fremont and aided by Com- 
modore Stockton, had already driven out the Mexicans and taken 
possession of the coveted region. Thus California and New JNIexico. 

92 



from which were later organized the States of California, Arizona, Ne- 
vada, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico and Oklahoma, fell into American 
hands almost without bloodshed. 

While these events were occurring in the North, General Wintield 
Scott was conducting" a remarkable campaign in Southern Mexico. 
Arriving before Vera Cruz in March 18-17, Scott immediately began 
a tremendous bombardment of the city. For nearly a week thousands 
of shells from Commodore Conner's fleet battered the fortifications. 
At last the garrison surrendered with honors of war and Scott had 
olitained a base from which to begin his march on Mexico City. Santa 
Anna, after his disastrous defeat by Taylor at Buena Vista, had again 
collected a force of 10,000 men with which to defend the mountain 
passes. In rapid succession occurred the battles of Cerro Gordo, 
Jalapa, Contreras, San Antonio, Cherubusco, Molino del Rey, and at 
last Chapultepec, all American victories. With the fall of Chapulte- 
pec, which guarded the capital, Mexico City lay defenseless. In Sep- 
tember Scott entered the city and raised the Stars and Stripes over 
the ancient palace of the Montezumas. 

With the fall of the capital, Mexico sued for peace. The Treaty of 
Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) conveyed to the United States the vast 
region of California and New Mexico. $15,000,000 was paid to the 
Mexican leaders. 

Discovery of Gold in California (1848). 

A few days before the treaty of peace ceding California to the 
United States was signed, gold was discovered on a branch of the 
Sacramento river in California. News of the discovery, however, did 
not become public for several weeks. By the following year, thous- 
ands of gold seekers, representing almost every corner of the civilized 
world were pouring into California. These picturesque "Forty- 
niners" in a few seasons collected millions of dollars worth of pure 
gold by the crude process of placer mining. Gradually law and order 
was established, thousands of gold-seekers saw business opportunity 
in the new country, and slowly there developed an air of stability and 
permanence. The discovery of gold brought more permanent settlers 
into the region in one year than would normally have emigrated to 
the Pacific coast in a quarter of a century. Furthermore, the discov- 
ery of gold destroyed Polk's cherished plan of bringing California 
into the Union as a slave state, for only a minority of the new settlers 
were slave holders and conditions on the coast were not favorable to 
slave labor. 

93 



TAYLOR-FILLMORP] ADMINISTRATION. 

The Democratic Convention of 1848 ignored Polk's claim to a 
second term and nominated General Lewis Cass of Michigan instead. 
Cass would likely have been elected had it not been for Van Buren's 
lack of support. This split in the Democratic party threw into office 
the Whig candidate, General Zaehary Taylor. Millard Fillmore, a 
northern man, was elected to the vice-presidency. Taylor's death 
after a year in office made Fillmore president. 

In 1850 California had sufficient population to justify it in apply- 
ing for admission to the Union. The country was now confronted with 
a situation similar to that of Missouri in 1820. If California were ad- 
mited as a free state, it would mean permanent superiority of the 
North in the Senate. The slavery question, once thought to have been 
settled definitely by the Missouri Compromise was again becoming a 
menace to the peace of the nation. California itself was overwhelm- 
ingly opposed to becoming slave soil, yet the South was determined to 
maintain its balance of power in Congress. At this critical time Henry 
Clay, the "Great Pacificator," again stepped into the breach with the 
last of his famous compromises. Both sides were loatii to accept 
Clay's plan, but after long and violent debate in Congress the measure 
finally passed. 

The salient features of the Compromise of 1850, often loosely 
called the Omnibus Bill, may be sunnued up as follows: (1) California 
was to come into the Union as a free state; (2) all other territory ac- 
({uired as a result of the Mexican War was to be admitted into the 
I^nion, with or without slavery, dependent on the will of the inhabi- 
tants at the time of admission; (3) a more stringent fugitive slave 
act was provided in an effort to break up such objectionable practices 
as the aiding of slaves to escape to free territory through the agency 
of the "Underground Railroad" and other kindred means; (4) the 
slave trade in the District of Colum])ia was proliibited; (5) Texas was 
to receive $10,000,000 as indemnity for accepting her present limits. 

From the above it may be seen that Clay's compromise was de- 
signed to appease to some extent both the North and the South on sev- 
eral of the important points of issue. Once more the slavery question 
seemed to he settled, but it proved to be but a brief postponenu>nt of 
an issue that could only be settled by a recourse to arms. 

Failure to acquire new slave territory in California now led the 
South to seek extension elsewhere. For years that section had favored 
tile acfiuisition of Cuba, but Spain had steadfastly refused to consider 
disposing of the island. Armed revolt of the Cubans against Spain led 
to a number of filibustering expeditions being fitted out in the ITnited 
States. osteiisi})]y fni* tlic purpose of aiding tlie misgoverned Cubans, 

94 



but ill reality in the interests of the slave-holding states. One of the 
most noted of these expeditions, commanded by Lopez, was captured 
by the Spaniards in 1853. Lopez, with more than two score of his fol- 
lowers, was executed. News of this precipitated an attack on the 
Spanish consulate at New Orleans. 

So distasteful were the fugitive slave laws enacted under the 
Compromise of 1850, that many of the northern states passed what 
are known as Personal Liberty Bills in an effort to interfere with the 
enforcement of the federal acts. To the radical anti-slavery people 
there appeared to be a higher law even than the Constitution, which 
demanded that humane treatment be accorded runaway negroes. Con- 
sequently, efforts on the part of slave owners to recover their proper- 
ty frequently resulted in rioting and armed clashes between the South- 
erners and the sympathizers of the negro. In 1852 a novel. Uncle 
Tom's Cabin, written by Harriet Beecher Stowe, first made its appear- 
ance in book form. Purporting to be a true picture of slave life in 
the South, Uncle Tom's Cabin soon became the most widely read and 
most discussed book of the decade. Perhaps no other single factor con- 
tributed as much toward the molding of public opinion in the North. 
Although not designed by the author primarily as a political weapon, 
the novel gave a tremndous impetus to the anti-slavery movement 
now so rapidly sweeping the northern states. • 

In the political campaign of 1852 both Whigs and Democrats 
tried to ignore the slavery issue. But old party bonds were weakening 
and a transition was taking place along the lines of opposition to 
slavery or support of that institution. The Whigs had little in the 
w^ay of presidential material, and were forced to name General Win- 
field Scott. For the Democratic nomination there was strong compe- 
tition. At length a dark horse candidate, Franklin Pierce, of New 
Hampshire, was named for the candidacy. It was felt that Pierce 
would be acceptable to both the North and the South, for he seemed to 
have no pronounced views on the matter of slavery and had declared 
that if he were elected the slavery question should not come before 
the people during his administration. In the ensuing election Pierce 
won easily, for despite their large popular vote, the Whigs carried 
but four states. 

FRANKLIN PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. 

1853-1857. 

Despite Pierce's assertion that the slavery question was not to be 
brought up during his administration, he had hardly taken office when 
the question was reopened in all its bitterness. Pierce had hinted that 
he favored the annexation of Cuba. So when the American steamer 

95 



Black Warrior was seized in Havana for a technical violation of the 

customs regulations, his Southern friends influenced him to threaten 
war with Spain. In the meantime European nations were anxious to 
learn whether the numerous American filibustering expeditions to 
Cuba indicated any settled policy of the United States in regard to 
that island. Consequently, Pierce ordered Soule, Buchanan, and 
Mason, our ministers to Spain, England, and France, respectively, to 
meet at Ostend, Belgium, and make a declaration as to our intentions 
in Cuba, that would satisfy foreign governments. He expected them 
to issue a diplomatically worded manifesto that might mean little or 
nothing. But each of these ministers was a pro-slave man of the 
most pronounced type. To Pierce's surprise, their manifesto when 
issued advocated action so radical that the President had no course 
other than to ignore the whole affair. The Ostend Manifesto urged 
that the United States gain Cu])a by purchase if possible, but by force 
if necessarj', in other words, the manifesto was a crude attempt on the 
part of its makers to defend the proposition that might makes right. 
The influence of Marcy, Secretary of State, at last resulted in Pierce's 
acceptance of a settlement of the Black Warrior Affair, and hence re- 
moved any excuse for war. 

The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. 

Such opposition as was aroused by Pierce's evident desire to se- 
cure Cuba in the interests of the slave-holding section, however, paled 
into insignificance when compared with the storm tiiat burst over the 
Administration because of its attitude on the Kansas-Nebraska ques- 
tion. The great region north and west of Missouri, extending to the 
Rockies and the Canadian line, and a part of the Louisiana Purchase, 
was uninhabited by whites until after the beginning of the overland 
travel to the Pacific coast. This immense tract was known as Nel)raska. 
Organization under a territorial government was now desirable. 

In 1854 Stephen A. Douglas, senator from Illinois, introduced a 
bill for the organization of Nebraska into two territories, Kansas and 
Nebraska. At the same time he embodied in tlie bill the remarkable 
proposition that the matter of slavery in these territories should be 
settled on the principle of ''squatter sovereignty," that is, the settlers 
in the region should have the right to decide for themselves whether 
or not there sliould be slavery in the new territories. In defense of 
his theory Douglas advanced the arguments that Congress, by leaving 
the question of slavery to be settled in Utah and New ]\Iexico by popu- 
lar sovereignty in the Compromise of 1850, had established a precedent 
for a similar solution of the question in all other territories; that the 
Missouri Compromise, setting the southern boundary of Missouri as 

96 



the line north of which slavery might not encroach, ought to be set 
aside on the ground that it was unstitutional ; and that a scattering 
of slaves rather than a segregation of slavery would mitigate any 
evils inherent in that institution. 

Douglas' act in thus attempting to break down the barriers to the 
extension of slavery will admit of no other interpretation than that his 
presidential ambitions had induced him to curry favor with the South- 
ern element in his party. He was already the acknowledged leader of 
the Northern Democrats, and if he could throw open the Northwest to 
slavery without making so direct an attack on the Missouri Compro- 
mise as to lose the support of his followers in the North, he could un- 
doubtedly be elected president. His project of "squatter sovereignty" 
once launched, however, was carried further than he intended, for 
Senator Dixon of Kentucky now made an amendment to the Kansas- 
Nebraska Bill specifically repealing the Compromise of 1820. Douglas 
dared not attack this amendment without losing Southern support. 
After a sharp fight in the Senate the bill went to the House, where 
Douglas secured its passage by a narrow margin. Pierce now weakly 
signed the bill before public sentiment in the North had a chance to 
crystallize. 

No sooner had the Kansas-Nebraska Bill become law than the 
storm broke in all its fury. Douglas and Pierce found tliemselves the 
objects of bitterest criticism. Political popularity gained for Douglas 
in the South was counter-balanced by his loss of Democratic support- 
ers in the North. 

Border Warfare in Kansas. 

The practical workings-out of the principle of popular sovereign- 
ty were now to be tested. An election must now be held to determine 
the status of slavery in the new territories, whether the inhabitants 
would accept or repudiate slavery. Recourse to the ballot brought 
with it its inevitable result. Hundreds of armed Missourians and 
other pro-slave men rushed into Kansas with a view to dominating the 
polls and influencing the elections. At the same time Emigrant Aid 
Societies, controlled by Free-Soilers and other radical anti-slavery 
people, sent hundreds of free state men into Kansas. It was generally 
conceded that Nebraska, because of its position, would eventually be- 
come a free state. The struggle for supremacy thus very naturally 
confined itself chiefly to Kansas. In the election for members of the 
first territorial legislature three thousand legal voters cast over six 
thousand votes. By such means the pro-slave element in Kansas ob- 
tained a majority in the legislature which met in July 1855. The anti- 
slavery people now set up a rival government at Topeka, which was 

97 



broken up by federal troops acting under orders of President Pierce. 
The burning of Lawrence, a free-state town, was retaliated for by a 
massacre of slave-state men. This was the situation in Kansas on the 
eve of the presidential election of 1856. 

The New Republican Party and the Election of 1856. 

The Kansas-Nebraska Bill shattered the Whig party, by leaving 
its Northern and Southern adherents hopelessly estranged over the 
question of extension of slavery. The upheaval in the Democratic 
party was hardly less great. Thousands of lifelong Democrats found 
the Kansas-Nebraska Act unendurable. Such a situation necessarily 
brought about a new alignment of the political forces of the country, 
a reorganization on a purely sectional basis. The time was ripe for 
the formation of a new party, founded on definite principles pertain- 
ing to slavery. 

The new- Republican party was bom in 1854 in "Wisconsin. A few 
weeks later at Jackson, ]\Iichigan, a great Republican mass meeting 
stated the platform of the new party when it demanded the repeal of 
the Kansas-Nebraska law and the Fugitive Slave law, and at the same 
time pronounced slavery a moral, social and political evil, the exten- 
sion of which was to be opposed. The Republican party was made up 
of Northern Whigs, Free-Soilers, Northern Democrats, anti-Nebraskn 
men. Abolitionists, and former adherents of the American or "Know- 
nothing" party. The growing strength of the new party was shown 
by the fact that when Congress met in 1855, the Democrats in the 
House were in a minority by seventy-five votes. The first national con- 
vention of the Republican party was held in Philadelphia in 1856. 
By the nomination of John C. Fremont for the presidency, the new 
party hopelessly destroyed its chance of winning in the coming elec- 
tion. Fremont was a weak candidate, totally unfitted to head his 
party. 

At the Democratic convention held in Cincinnati three prominent 
aspirants for presidential honors appeared, Douglas, Pierce, and 
Buchanan. The support of Douglas and Pierce came principally from 
the South. Buchanan was finally chosen, since his nomination would 
insure a measure of support in both the North and the South. 

The South was free in threats to secede if Fremont were elected. 
Such was not to be the case, however, for at the polls in November 
Buchanan carried the election by a safe majority. Thus the final 
break between the North and South was postponed for another period 
of four years, or until the Republican party had found in the person 
of Abraham Lincoln a leader worthy of achieving the purposes for 
w^hich the party was formed. 

98 



JAMES BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION. 
1857-1861. 

What was practically civil war iii Kansas, was still raging when 
Buchanan took office. Since neither Congress nor the Kansas settlers 
had proved equal to settling the question of slavery in the territories, 
the Supreme Court of the United States now tried its hand, in the case 
of Dred Scott, a negro. 

The Dred Scott Decision. 

Dred Scott, a slave owned by an army surgeon, was in 1835 and 
1836 taken by his master into the free regions of Illinois and Minne- 
sota. Some time later he was taken back to Missouri, a slave state. 
A number of years after this Dred Scott sued for his freedom in the 
courts of Missouri, on the ground that residence in free territory made 
him free. The Missouri courts rendered decisions against the negro 
as did the United States Court for Missouri, but eventually the case 
was appealed to the United States Supreme Court. The Supreme 
Court at length sustained the decisions of the federal courts for 
Missouri and at the same time Chief Justice Taney, of Maryland, 
handed down a long opinion designed to settled the status of negro 
slavery in the United States. The doctrine laid down by the Chief 
Justice was, in substance, as follows: (1) That a negro could not 
become a citizen of the United States, and consequently had no right 
to sue in the courts; (2) that neither Congress nor any territorial 
legislature had the right to make restrictions concerning slavery, and, 
consequently, the Missouri Compromise line was null and void; (3) 
that under the Constitution the negro was regarded as property and 
as such could rightfully be taken anywhere in the United States. 

The Dred Scott Decision was hailed with joy in the South, but the 
great majority of the people of the North condemned the opinion of 
the court as unjust and a product of sectional prejudice. The 
decision, if adhered to, would throw the whole North open to slavery. 
If he' cared to, a Southern slave holder could purchase an estate in 
Ohio or Massachusetts, move there with his slaves, and thus maintain 
a decadent institution among freemen. It became increasingly evi- 
dent that the great question would never be satisfactorily^ settled by 
peaceable means. 

The Lecompton Constitution. 

Meanwhile, the pro-slave element in Kansas held a convention at 
Lecompton, and drew up a form of state constitution to be submitted 
to Congress. In order to maintain a semblance of fairi^ess this con- 

99 



stitution was tirst submitted to the territorial voters. By an ingenious 
arrangement the voters were given no choice in the matter of slavery. 
They must either vote for the Lecompton constitution with slavery, 
or for the Lecompton constitution ivithoul slavery. In either event 
they would be voting for slavery, since a clause in the constitution 
protected all existing slave property in the state. The free-state vot- 
ers realized that the referendum was but a sham and refused to at- 
tend the polls. The pro-slave men then considered the approval of 
their own voters sufficient and submitted the Lecompton constitution 
to Congress. 

To the everlasting credit of Douglas, that Senator now acted in 
a manner such as to regain for him much of his former popularity in 
the North. Realizing that the Lecompton constitution was but a 
travesty on the principle of popular sovereignty, Douglas attacked 
Buchanan fiercely for being willing to accept the Lecompton fraud as 
a basis for the admission of Missouri. So skilfully and so energetically 
did he organize his opposition in Congress that the constitution failed 
of acceptance, and Douglas had not thrown away his popularity in 
the South in vain. In 1861 Kansas came into the Union as a free 
state. 

The Lincoln-Douglas Debates. 

Douglas' term in the Senate expired in 1858. His fight against 
the Lecomption constitution had restored his popularity in Illinois to 
such an extent that he confidently expected to be returned to office. 
Opposed to Douglas was the foremost Illinois Republican, Abraham 
Lincoln. At first the contest for the senatorship attracted little atten- 
tion outside the state, for Lincoln had not yet established himself 
in the public eye. Interest came later when Lincoln challenged his 
rival to a series of joint debates to be held in the various towns of 
Illinois. It seemed a foolhardy act on the part of the Republican 
candidate, for Douglas was at the time the best-known orator in 
the country while Lincoln had no qualifications for public speaking 
other than shrewd common sense backed by bard facts and logic. 

The subject to be debated \v;is tlic relative inei-its of the Democratic 
principle of squatter sovereignty as opposed to the Repuhliean doc- 
trine of control of slavery in tlie territories by Congress. Douglas 
made the mistake of putting his speeches in the form of questions to 
be answered by his rival. Whereupon Lincoln asked Douglas this 
question: "Can the people of a Ignited States territory, in any law- 
ful way exclud(> slavery from its limits, prior to the formation of a 
state constitution?" Douglas was at a loss for an answer. If he 

100 



answered, as he finally did, that slavery could be excluded through 
unfriendly legislation on the part of the territorial legislature, he 
would ignore the Dred Scott Decision, which held that no territory 
had the right to legislate against slavery; moreover he himself had 
pronounced the Decision sound Democratic doctrine. If he answered 
that slavery could not be excluded by the people of a territory, he 
turned his back squarely on his doctrine of popular sovereignty. His 
answer made it impossible for him ever to be elected President for 
the Southern Democrats were furious at his repudiation of the Dred 
Scott Decision. 

Douglas won the senatorial contest but Lincoln's terse, concise 
speeches and unanswerable logic had made him a nation-wide figure 
and had made possible his nomination for the Presidency in 1860. 
John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry. 

In October, 1859, a band of desperate men under the leadership 
of John Brown, lately come east from Kansas, attacked the little 
village of Harpers Ferry, Virginia, seized the government arsenal, 
and attempted to start a slave insurrection. Contrary to Brown's 
expectations, the negroes showed little inclination to fight for their 
freedom, and fled terror-stricken. The following day Colonel Rob- 
ert E. Lee, in command of a force of marines, arrived on the scene. 
After a sharp skirmish in which several of Brown's men were killed, 
Lee succeeded in capturing Brown and a number of his followers. 

The importance of Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry was, by the 
Southern people, magnified beyond all reason. Slaveholders jumped 
to the conclusion that the affair was the result of a Avell laid con- 
spiracy on the part of organized societies in the North. As a matter 
of fact, Browm had acted entirely on his own responsibility and his 
act was either the result of an unbalanced mind or of fanatical zeal 
in behalf of the negro. Brown was charged with treason, convicted, 
and promptly executed. 

Presidential Election of 1860 and its Effects. 

The country had scarcely recovered from the excitement of John 
Brown's raid when the coming of another Presidential election caused 
apprehension for the safety of the Union. Early in 1860 Jefferson 
Davis introduced in the Senate a series of resolutions setting forth the 
extreme Democratic doctrine of the South, that the states were sov- 
ereign, that the national government was subordinate, and that neither 
Congress nor the territorial legislatures had the right to prohibit slav- 
ery in the territories. Before the Democratic party as a whole was 
willing to accept these resolutions, the Democratic National Conven- 
tion met in Charleston to choose a candidate for the Presidency. 

101 



A platform based on the Davis resolutions was unacceptable to the 
Northern delegation. The Northern deleg:ates stood so solidly for the 
adoption of a less radical platform that delegates from six of the 
Soutliern states ** bolted" the convention and met at Richmond. Va. 
The remainder of the convention adjourned from Charleston to meet 
at Baltimore. All efforts to effect a reunion of the two factious 
failed. The Northern or conservative branch of the party now nomi- 
nated Stephen A. Douglas. The radical, pro-slave element, in meet- 
ing at Richmond, named John C. Breckenridge for the Presidency. 
Thus occurred the fatal split in the Democratic party that resulted in 
the election of Lincoln and the precipitating of the Civil War. 

The Republican party met in convention in Chicago in May. 
The acknowledged leader of the party was William H. Seward, of 
New York, but many thought him too radical. A moderate man, 
preferably from the West, was needed to carry the border states. 
Such a candidate was found in the person of Abraham Lincoln of 
Illinois, and he was nominated on the third ballot. 

On election day Lincoln carried every Northern state, gaining 
180 electoral votes while needing only 152 for election. To the slavery 
men of the South it then appeared plain that slave property wa.s no 
longer secure now that the ''black" Republicans had made President 
of the United States a man whose "opinions and purposes" were hos- 
tile to slavery. Secession from the Union now seemed to the Soutli 
the only course open. It had been freely predicted during the cam- 
paign of 1860 that the election of Lincoln would mean disunion, but 
the majority of Northerners had minimized this danger. 

South Carolina now took the lead in the South, and passed an 
ordinance of secession, December 20, 1860. Within six weeks six other 
Southern states (Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, 
and Texas) followed her in the secession movement. Delegates from 
these seven states met at ^Montgomery, Alabama, in February, 1861, 
and formed the Southern Confederacy. A constitution was adopted, 
and Jefferson Davis was chosen President, with Alexander Stephens as 
his Vice-President. A few weeks later, after the actual beginning of 
hostilities, Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee, joined 
the Southern Confederacy, making the total number of seceding states 
eleven. Early in the war the Confederate capital was moved to 
Riclimond, Virginia, as being nearer the theatre of action. 

The United States could liave had no weaker chief executive in 
her hour of need than was James Buchanan. Cautious to the point 
of timidity, lie allowed the great secession movement to develop 
momentum without lifting a hand toward preservation of the Union. 

102 



Encouraging the South by his very helplessness and lack of decision, 
he made no move to prevent the organizing and drilling of Confederate 
troops, the building of fortifications, and seizure of government prop- 
erty such as arsenals, shipyards, a United States mint, and supplies of 
all kinds. 

It must be kept in mind that comparatively few pro-slave men 
in the South were secessionists. There were even thousands of loyal 
Union men in that section, particularly in 1860. But the "hot-heads" 
or ultra-radicals were largely in control. Thousands of men fought in 
the Confederate armies through a sense of loyalty to the section or to 
their states, who never were in sympathy with secession. General 
Robert E. Lee is a notable example. 

A number of eleventh hour attempts to maintain peace between 
the sections were made during the interval between Lincoln's election 
and his inauguration. A so-called Peace Congress met in Washington 
and sent recommendations to Congress. Senator Crittenden intro- 
duced in the Senate what is known as the "Crittenden Amendment," 
designed to change the Constitution so as to settle the difference be- 
tM^een the sections. Tliese peace plans came to naught for the roots 
of the bitterness that caused the impending conflict were too deeply 
inbedded for the question to be settled offhand. 

ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION. 

1861-1865 (Reelected in 1865). 

All hope of now saving the nation rested on the incoming presi- 
dent. The feeling of conciliation that had marked the Northern peo- 
ple during the winter was now slowly changing to an attitude of 
deep resentment and firm purpose. The secession of the South had 
temporarily caused the North to feel regret over the Republican vic- 
tory, but Lincoln's inaugural address struck the right chord. Con- 
trary to popular belief in the South, Lincoln was no abolitionist, 
though he hated slavery; he had been elected on a platform of non- 
extension of slavery, but he had no intention of attacking that insti- 
tution in sections where it already existed ; his purpose was to uphold 
the Constitution and preserve the Union. If the seceding states 
persisted in their course, there would be war. 

Lincoln chose as his Cabinet staunch Union men : "W. H. Seward, 
Secretary of State; Salmon P. Chase, Secretary of the Treasury; 
Simon Cameron, Secretary of War; Gideon Welles, Secretary of the 
Navy ; Caleb B. Smith, Secretary of the Interior ; Edward Bates, 
Attorney-General; and Montgomery Blair, Postmaster-General. 

103 



THE CIVIL WAR (1861-1865). 
Causes and Preliminary Events of the War. 

Strictly speaking, our Civil War was not a civil war, but was a 
war of sections, a war between two peoples of widely different tradi- 
tions, customs, occupations, industries, and lines of thought. Only 
in the border states was it a civil war. The North was a manufactur- 
ing and commercial section, a country of small agriculturalists, pro- 
ducing diversified products. The South was almost wholly an agricul- 
tural section, producing staple raw materials, such as cotton, com, 
tobacco, live stock, cane and rice. 

Slavery was the one fundamental cause of the war. State sover- 
eignty was but a convenient and effective weapon with which the slave- 
holder fought for the continued existence and extension of the insti- 
tution of slavery. Secession occurred because Republican control of 
the national government endangered slavery in the South. Yet seces- 
sion was not an underlying cause of the war, it only precipitated the 
conflict. 

A comparison of the resources of the warring sections aids us to 
understand why the Southern Confederacy was ultimately crushed. 
The population of the northern states exceeded twenty-two millions; 
the population of the South was less than ten millions. The national 
government was of long standing, was recognized all over the world, 
and had established friendly relations abroad ; the Southern Confed- 
eracy was handicapped by ha\ang to establish relations and credit 
abroad. The North had immeasurablj' the greatest advantage in her 
superiority in men, money, and materials of war; the South was de- 
pendent on foreign nations for war materials, for munition and cloth- 
ing factories were almost wholly lacking in that section. The North 
had a navy and facilities for enlarging it ; the South, having prac- 
tically no shipping except that seized from the United States govern- 
ment, was rendered increasingly helpless as the Union blockade closed 
her ports to foreign trade. 

The South had, however, certain lesser advantages over the 
North, that tended to prolong the war. There was f?r greater 
unanimity in opinion and action among the people of the Confederacy 
than was the case in the North. The South had better trained troops 
and better military leaders during the first two years of the struggle. 
The South was waging the war at home, with all the advantages that 
are attendant on defensive warfare. The Confederacy very reasonably 
had prospects, for a time at least, of securing Great Britain as an 
active ally. 

104 



Campaign in the East During 1861. 

Actual hostilities began April 12, 1861, when the Confederates 
opened fire on Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor. Sumter was occu- 
pied by Major Robert Anderson with less than a hundred men. When 
it became plain to the Confederate leaders that Lincoln intended to 
relieve the fort. General Beauregard was ordered to begin the bom- 
bardment. A day and a night of incessant artillery fire battered the 
fort to pieces, and on April 14 Anderson and his little garrison 
surrendered. 

On the day following, the President called on the state govern- 
ments for 75,000 militia to serve for three months in defense of the 
Union. The response on the part of the North was significant of the 
change that was rapidly taking place in the minds of the people. Fir- 
ing on Fort Sumter was a colossal blunder on the part of Jefferson 
Davis and his advisers, for by that act public sentiment in the North 
was crystallized. Millions of people had cared little whether the 
South seceded or not, millions had been opposed to the use of force 
to prevent secession, but now that the United States flag had been 
fired upon, all this was changed. For the first time in decades party 
differences were forgotten, and the North stood as a unit for war. 

While the Sixth Massachusetts Regiment was passing through 
Baltimore on its way to Washington it was attacked by a mob and 
several soldiers and a number of civilians were killed. Thus on April 
19, the anniversary of Lexington and Concord, occurred the first 
bloodshed of the Civil War. During the summer of 1861 the national 
government was handicapped by its lack of preparedness. The War 
Department found its facilities inadequate for the task before it, and 
for months the thousands of troops concentrated near Washington 
were not properly cared for in the way of training, equipment and 
supplies. Officers from the South were resigning daily from the army 
and navy to offer their services to their home section. However, the 
government at Washington gradually developed a definite plan for 
conducting the war. 

Union Plan of the War. 

I. The blockade of all important Southern ports in an effort to 
prevent trade between the Confederate states and foreign countries. 

II. To gain complete control of the Mississippi river and thus to 
cut the Confederacy in two, and at the same time to cut the cliief 
lines of communiation between the East and the West. 

III. The occupation of the border states in order to hold them 
for the Union, and to provide military bases for operations against 
the Confederacy. 

105 



IV. To invade the South from a number of points simultaneously 
with a view to recovering the seceded territory and at the same time 
dividing the enemy forces. In the East the chief objective of the 
Union forces was the capture of Richmond, the Confederate capital. 

1. Bull Run. — For a few weeks after the surrender of Fort 
Sumter, Washington was in danger of falling into the hands of the 
Confederates, but by June sufificient Union troops had reached the 
capital to insure its safety. General Beauregard with about 20,000 
Confederate troops was encamped at ^Manassas Junction, thirty miles 
south of Washington. General Joseph E. Johnson, with 10,000 more 
Confederates, was in the Shenandoah Valley, west of the Blue Ridge 
Mountains. 

Public opinion in the North now demanded that these Confed- 
erate armies be crushed. "On to Richmond" became the cry of the 
Northern press. Against the judgment of his military leaders, Lin- 
coln now permitted General Scott to order an advance. General 
McDowell, with 30,000 troops, mostly raw militia, was ordered to move 
into Virginia against General Beauregard. General Patterson, with 
another Union force, was ordered to hold Johnston's force in the 
Shenandoah to prevent its junction with Beauregard. 

On July 21 ^McDowelTs army engaged the Confederates. Union 
hopes ran liigh. McDowell attacked with vigor and by noon was 
slowly driving tlie Confederates back. At this critical moment, how- 
ever, Johnston's force, which had eluded Patterson, arrived to aid 
Beauregard. This event decided the battle, for the Union troops, worn 
out with the day's fighting, at the sight of enemy re-enforcements 
became demoralized. Beauregard not only recovered his lost ground 
but drove IMcDowell's forces pell-mell in the direction of Washington. 
What had at first been an orderly retirement soon became a rout. Tlie 
panic-stricken soldiers threw away their guns and equipment and fled 
precipitately. Fear of pursuit urged on the fleeing mas.s until it had 
reached comparative safety on the lieights overlooking Wasliington. 

The disaster at Bull Run for a time stunned the North, l)ut soon 
this consternation gave way to renewed determination. A defeat such 
as it had experienced was, in reality, what was needed to bring the 
Nortli to a realization of the magnitude of the task confronting it. 
Witli dogged determination the government now set about the prepara- 
tion to retrieve its losses. 

2. Armij of Potomac Rcorganizi d. — General George B. ^IcClellan 
was now given the task of reorganizing the Union army. He liad al- 
ready attracted attention by his skilful campaign in West Virginia 
by which he drove the Confederates out of that region, and was emi- 

106 



nently well fitted to build up an army. By the fall of 1861 he had 
180,000 men under his command and was rapidly bringing order out 
of chaos. Although his army was now greatly superior in point of 
numbers to those of the Confederates, he preferred to delay his drive 
on Richmond until the Spring of 1862. 

3. The Trent Affair. — "While the United States had not formally 
recognized the belligerency of the Confederacy, in practise the war 
was actually being conducted on such a basis. However, Great 
Britain '« formal recognition of the right of the South to wage war 
was deeply resented in the United States. More serious complications 
now arose over the affair f the British steamer Trent. The Con- 
federacy hoped to have its independence recognized abroad and sent 
Messrs. Mason and Slidell to England to plead its cause. While en- 
route from Havana to England, these envoys were taken from the 
Trent, on which they were passengers, by Captain Wilkes of the 
U. S. S. San Jacinto. The arrest of Mason and Slidell was hailed with 
joy in the North, but Lincoln very wisely released the prisoners and 
disavowed the act, since he saw that that would furnish Great Britain 
the excuse she was thought to be seeking for giving active aid to the 
Confederacy. 

Campaign in the West During 1861. 

1. Wilsoit's Creek. In the West during 1861 there were few 
military moves of importance. The year was spent chiefly in prepar- 
ing north of the Ohio a powerful force that would be able successfully 
to invade the South the following year. River gunboats were being 
built with which to operate on the Mississippi and its tributaries. 
Immense quantities of military stores were being collected at points 
in southern Illinois and Indiana. Chiefly through the efforts of Gen- 
eral Lyon an attempt on the part of secessionists to obtain control of 
Missouri failed. 

Meanwhile the Confederacy was preparing a force to drive out 
Union troops from Missouri. A combined Confederate force under 
Price and McCulloch now entered the state, numbering 12,000 men. 
Against these General Lyon had available only 6,000 men. In August 
Lyon attacked the Confederates at Wilson's Creek, In a desperate 
battle he strove vainly to break the Confederate line. The death of the 
Union commander was followed by the retirement of liis forces, leav- 
ing Price and McCulloch in possession of the field. Each side lost 
slightly over a thousand men. 

2. In November General Grant destroyed Confederate stores at 
Belmont, in eastern Missouri. Grant had his headquarters at Cairo, 
Illinois. 

107 



Campaigns in the East During 1862. 

1. The Monitor and the Mrrrimac. — Since the beginning of the 
war the United States Navy had been giving a good account of itself. 
An expedition against the North Carolina coast had resulted in the 
establishment of a base on Pamlico Sound. Another expedition under 
Burnside seized Roanoke Island. Late in 1861 Admiral Dupont cap- 
tured forts near Port Royal, S. C, and established a base from which 
to conduct the blockade. But none of these events had as great a 
significance, from a naval standi)oint, as an engagement tlrat took 
place in Hampton Roads, Virginia, early in 1862. 

The Confederates had seized at Norfolk the old government ship 
Merrimac, had covered her with railroad iron and rechristened her 
Virginia. Both sides had been experimenting with iron-clads but as 
yet there had been no opportunity of testing their practical value in 
actual warfare. In ^Mareli, 1862, the Merrimac was sent out to attack 
the Union fleet of wooden ships assembled in Hampton Roads. Steam- 
ing steadily on in the face of a tremendous cannonading the Merrimac 
attacked and destroyed the Union ships Cumberland and Congress. 
The following day she appeared again prepared to complete the de- 
struction of the Union fleet. During the night, however, the United 
States ironclad Monitor had appeared on the scene. The ^Monitor 
was utterly diflPerent from the Merrimac in design and mounted two 
enormous guns in a revolving turret. On the approach of the Con- 
federate ship the two ironclads immediately engaged. For several 
hours the two ships battered each other without any serious damage to 
either. Finally Lieutenant Worden, commanding the ^lonitor. was 
wounded and tlie Union vessel drew off into shallow water. The ]\Ier- 
rimac returned to her base and the Union fleet was saved. It was now 
quite evident that the day of the wooden warship was past ; that a 
revolution in methods of naval warfare had occurred. Both the North 
and the South now constnicted ironclads, which were frequently 
pitted against each other later in the war. 

2. The Peninsular Campaign. — In April McClellan was at last 
ready to move his great army against Richmond. The whole Army of 
the Potomac, with the exception of 40.000 men under McDowell, left 
to protect Washington, was moved on transports to the Union base at 
Fort Monroe, near Norfolk. McClellan's plan was to force his way 
up the narrow peninsula between the York and the James rivers, at 
the head of which was Richmond. Opposed to the Union commander 
with his force of 115,000 men was tiie Confederate army of Northern 
Virginia under General J. E. Johnston, numbering about 90,000. 

108 



Despite his superior force, McClellan's lack of generalship in the 
field delayed his progress. Afraid to risk his splendid army on any- 
thing short of a certainty, he lost opportunities for pushing his ad- 
vance. The heavy rains and the character of the country to be 
traversed added to his difficulties. At Williamsburg he lost much val- 
uable time in laying siege to positions which the Confederates had no 
intention of holding and on which were mounted chiefly wooden, or 
' ' Quaker, ' ' guns. 

At Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks, McClellan allowed himself to be 
checked within seven miles of Richmond. Alarmed because the re- 
enforcements under McDowell had been held in the Shenandoah by 
Stonewall Jackson's brilliant feint of attack on Washington, he 
feared to push his advantage. The delay gave time for Jackson to 
return and join Lee, who was now at the head of the Confederate 
army. The Confederates then took the offensive and in the famous 
"Seven Days' Fighting" (in which were fought the battles of 
Mechanicsville, Gaines Mills, Frazier's Farm, and Malvern Hill) forced 
the Union army to retreat to the James river. Thus McClellan lost all 
the ground he had gained after weeks of campaigning. The Union 
army's great drive had fallen short of its purpose, so the whole force 
was recalled to the vicinity of Washington and McClellan was super- 
seded by General Pope, who had attracted attention in the West. 

3. Lee's First Invasion of the North. — Confederate success in the 
Peninsular campaigning now led General Lee to attempt an invasion 
of the North. Aside from the moral effect invasion would have on 
the North, Lee believed that if he could enter Maryland with his 
army, thousands of recruits would flock to his standards, quantities of 
supplies and provisions would be obtained, and Maryland would 
perhaps be induced to join the ranks of the seceded states. 

In the meantime. General Pope with a new army of the Potomac, 
consisting chiefly of McClellan 's old force, attacked Lee on the old bat- 
tle ground of Bull Run. In what is known as the Second Battle of 
Bull Run, the Union forces received another severe defeat and were 
again forced to retire on Washington. Pope was removed and 
McClellan reinstated. 

The way for Lee's advance was now open. Sweeping up the 
Shenandoah Valley, the Confederate van under Stonewall Jackson 
captured Harper's Ferry, taking 12,000 prisoners. The Confederate 
forces now crossed the Potomac into western Maryland. Near 
Sharpsburg, on Antietam Creek, Lee found his way blocked by 
McClellan's army. Here, in one of the bloodiest single battles of the 
war, the Union force stubbornly held its ground. At the close of the 

109 



day's fighting nearly 25,000 men lay dead or wounded on the field. 
Neither side had gained any ground of importance. After resting his 
men for twenty-four liours, MeClellan was about to attack again. Lee, 
liowever, deemed furtlier advance unwise in tlie face of sucli resistance, 
so suddenly drew off his troops, recrosscd the Potomac, and retired 
into Virginia. He was slowly followed by the Union army. While 
Antietam may be considered a drawn battle as far as the actual fight- 
ing was concerned, it was clearly a Union victory in effect, for Lee 
had failed to achieve his purposes and had lost thousands of his best 
troops. 

4. Emancipation. — President Lincoln now made a masterly 
move that to a great extent changed the character of the war and de- 
prived the Confederacy of any hope of foreign aid. Late in Septem- 
ber, and immediately after Antietam, Lincoln issued liis preliminary 
Emancipation Proclamation, which was in fact a warning that the 
negro slaves in all states that should be in rebellion against the gov- 
ernment on January 1, 1863, should be forever free. None of the 
seceded states heeded tlie warning, so on January 1, 1863, Lincoln is- 
sued liis Second Emancipation Proclamation, declaring free all slaves 
held in the seceded states. It must be kept in mind that the presi- 
dent had no power under the Constitution to disturb slavery in states 
that were not in rebellion against the goverimient. Hence the Emanci- 
pation Proclamation was purely a war measure and did not free a sin- 
gle slave in such states as Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, or Delaware. 
These slaves were later freed through the agencies of the state govern- 
ments and the Thirteenth Amendment. Furthermore, negro slaves 
in the seceded states became actually free only as these states were 
conquered and occupied by the Union forces. Earlier in the war 
slaves falling into Union hands had been confiscated as contraband 
of war. 

5. Fredericksburg. — For what the Administration considered as 
failure to follow up his advantage and crush Lee's army after Antie- 
tam, MeClellan was again removed from command. General Burn- 
side was put at the head of the Army of the Potomac. He followed 
Lee into Virginia, and in a reckless assault on Fredericksburg, suffered 
one of the severest defeats of the war. Burnside was now superseded 
by "Fighting .Toe" Hooker. 

Campaigns in the West During 1862. 

1. Capture of Forts Doiulson and Henry. — In contra.st to the 
poor showing made against the forces of the Confederacy in the East 
during 1862, the Union armies in the West made splendid progress. 

110 



Under General Halleck, Commander of the Department of the "West, 
General Grant now undertook to break the Confederate line of de- 
fense extending from the Mississippi eastward across southern Ken- 
tucky. Assisted by a fleet of gunboats, Grant's forces advanced up 
the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers, guarded chiefly by Forts Henry 
and Donelson. Early in February Fort Henry fell into the Union 
hands. Grant now moved twelve miles across country to Donelson 
on the Cumberland. After a sharp engagement he succeeded in nearly 
surrounding the fort. A fierce counter attack by the Confederate 
leader, Pillow, only resulted in the line being drawn tighter about 
Donelson. Gallant charges under Smith and Wallace brought the 
Union batteries to positions from which they could shell the fort on 
the inside. Seeing that his position was now untenable. General Buck- 
ner surrendered to Grant without waiting for the final assault. Nearly 
15,000 Confederates and great quantities of stores thus fell into Union 
hands and the way was now open into western Tennessee. 

2. Mill Springs. General Buell with another part of Halleck 's 
force meanwhile moved south from Louisville and occupied Nashville. 
At ]\Iill Springs in eastern Kentucky a third Union force of 10,000 
men under General Thomas defeated several thousand Confederates 
under Crittenden. This victory opened a way to the relief of the 
Unionists of eastern Tennessee. 

3. Pittsburg Landing or Shiloh. — After the fall of Donelson 
Grant's force moved farther south on the Tennessee. By April he was 
at Pittsburg Landing, southwest of Nashville, with 40,000 men. While 
awaiting the arrival of Buell, who was on his way from Nashville, 
Grant was suddenly attacked by the main Confederate force in the 
West under General A. S. Johnston. So sudden was the onslaught that 
the Union forces were hurled back step by step during the whole of the 
bloody first day's fighting. Darkness at length stopped the battle. 
The Confederates looked forward with confidence to reopening the 
engagement at daybreak, despite the loss of their beloved leader, 
Johnston, who had fallen mortally wounded. During the night, how- 
ever, circumstances changed to favor Grant. Buell arrived with 
heavy re-enforcements. The Union troops now forced the fighting and 
slowly recovered their lost ground. The Confederates looked in vain 
for Van Dorn who was expected to reenforce them with a large force 
from west of the Mississippi. The battle of Shiloh was a Union vic- 
tory but not a decisive one. Grant slowly followed the retiring Con- 
federates to the vicinity of Corinth, in northern Mississippi. 

4. Islaiid No^ .10. — While Grant was making his way through 
western Tennessee, a force under General Pope was striving to open 

ni 



the Mississippi river from the north. A short distance below the 
mouth of the Ohio was a Confederate fortified pasition known as 
Island No. 10. After a terrific bombardment from the Union fleet the 
garrison surrendered on the same day as the battle of Shiloh. The 
fall of Island No. 10 opened the river to Union shipping as far south 
as Memphis. 

5. Pea Ridge. — Early in the spring of 1862 an important en- 
gagement occurred at Pea Ridge, Arkansas, between a Union force 
under General Curtis and a Confederate army under General Van 
Dorn. The result was a complete Union victory, which determined 
beyond all question that Missouri should not secede from the Union. 

6. Farragut's Capture of Nrw Orleans. — Shortly after Pope's 
capture of Island No. 10 a large fleet under Farragut appeared at the 
mouth of the Mississippi, (^n board were nearly 15,000 troo{is under 
General Butler, wlio was to cooperate with Farragut in the taking of 
New Orleans and the opening of the Mississippi from its mouth. 
Above Forts Jackson and St. Philip, which guarded the entrance to 
the river seventy miles below New Orleans, was a large Confederate 
fleet, consisting of iron clads, gunboats, and various river craft. For 
nearly a week Farragut bombarded the two forts. During the night of 
April 24th the whole Union fleet ran past the enemy batteries and 
destro.ved the Confederate fleet which lay between the forts and New 
Orleans. New Orleans now lay at the mercy of the Union forces, 
Butler's arm.v, having disposed of the forts bombarded by Farragut, 
now followed the fleet up the river and took possession of the city. 
Memphis fell to Union forces in June, and the ^lississippi was now 
open with the exception of a strip of about a liiindred miles between 
Vicksburg and Port Hudson. 

7. Bragg' s Raid Acros^s K( tituckg. — General Braxton Bragg had 
superseded Beauregard as commander of the Confederate armies in the 
West. Paralleling Lee's first invasion of the North east of the moun- 
tains, Bragg in the early autumn of 1862 raided northward through 
T<Mnussee and Kentucky in an cll'ort to retrieve some of the losses 
suffered by the Confederates in those states. Louisville was Bragg 's 
objective but Buell with a Union force reached the city first. The Con- 
federates then began to retire, but they were overtaken by Buell's 
forces, defeated in a bloody battle at Perryville, and driven from the 
state. 

8. I Ilka and Corinth. — Grant's force had been inactive in west- 
ern Tennessee since early in 1862. Corinth was being used as a Union 
base. A large Confederate force under Price and Van Dorn in Sep- 
tember seized Inka and made a desperate assault on Corinth which 

112 



was guarded by 20,000 Union troops under Rosecrans. Rosecrans re- 
pulsed the attacks, inflicting heavy losses on the Confederates. Thus 
was Corinth saved. 

9. Murfreeshorough. — Following his victory at Corinth, Rose- 
crans was given command of Buell's old force and ordered into Ten- 
nessee. With 47,000 troops he reached Murfreeshorough where Bragg 
had his winter quarters. On December 31 the two armies met. There 
followed one of the most fiercely fought battles of the war. After sev- 
eral days of fighting Bragg was driven from his winter quarters and 
again the way was open toward eastern Tennessee. 

Campaigns in the East During 1863. 

1. Chancellorsvillc . — Early in May, 1863, Hooker, who had spent 
the preceding winter in reorganizing the Army of the Potomac, again 
took the field against Lee and Jackson. The two armies met in the 
Wilderness region of eastern Virginia. Once more the Union army was 
outgeneraled. Having divided his force of 90,000 men in the face of 
a much larger Union army, Lee sent Stonewall Jackson on one of his 
favorite flank movements. Coming up in the rear of Hooker's force, 
Jackson suddenly attacked with vigor. The Union army was thrown 
into confusion and one of the most brilliant Confederate victories of 
the war was won. However, it cost the life of Stonewall Jackson, who 
toward the close of the fighting was shot by his own men Mobile riding 
between the lines at dusk. 

2. Lee's Second Invasion of the North. — Following his great 
victory at Chancellorsvillc, Lee again determined to invade the North. 
This time stern necessity rather than military judgment dictated his 
course. So tightly was the blockade being drawn around the South, 
that Lee's army was beginning to feel a shortage in the way of sup- 
plies of all kinds. Moreover, things had been going very badly for the 
Confederacy in the West, where the Union forces had won an almost 
unbroken series of victories. Unless the Confederates, by a bold 
stroke, were able to seize some of the rich northern cities, it would 
only be a question of time until the Union forces would be occupying 
the very heart of the Confederacy. 

Retracing his old route up the Shenandoah Valley, Lee again 
hurled his splendid army upon the North. The defeated but un- 
daunted Army of the Potomac moved ncrthward east of the Blue 
Ridge, keeping itself between Lee and Washington. Once more it had 
changed commanders, and was now led by General Meade. Where a 
range of the Blue Ridge Mountains terminates, in Adams County, 
Pennsylvania, the advance guards of the two armies met in the little 

113 



village of Gettysburg. The greater part of both armies came up dur- 
ing the night, and Meade, recognizing the natural advantages of the 
place, determined to make his stand on the low wooded ridges. 

3. Thr Battle of Gettysburg. — The I^nion forces occupied Ceme- 
tery Ridge, guarded on the left flank by Big Round Top and Little 
Round Top, and protected on the right by Gulp's Hill. Lee had posted 
his army in a great semi-circle, chiefly occupying Seminary Ridge. 
Between the two armies lay a narrow plain in which nestled the village 
of Gettysburg. 

The battle opened July 1, with the chief fighting consisting of 
terrific artillery bombardment, each army trying to dislodge the other 
from its position. The second day's fighting consisted of a desperate 
attempt on the part of Longstreet's division of the Confederates to 
turn the T^nion left by the capture of Big Round Top. At the same 
time other Confederate attacks were made on the Union center and 
on Gulp's Hill. All day the battle raged, and at nightfall the Union 
army still maintained its position practically unchanged. 

Lee was to make one last deperate attempt against the LTuion line. 
After the most intense cannonading in the way of preparation, he sent 
15,000 of the flower of his army, under General Pickett, to storm the 
Union center in an effort to split Meade's army. About noon, as the 
smoke lifted out of the little valley, Pickett's men were seen advancing 
in a magnificj'ut charge. The Union batteries played havoc in their 
ranks but on they came. With a last burst of speed they sprang at 
the Union lines, only to be hurled back with terrible slaughter. 
Exhausted and broken, the fragments of Pickett's gallant force were 
swept back across the valley. 

. Lee and his army could do no more, and a few days later the 
Confederates began their retreat to the Potomac. The battle of 
Gettysburg was over and the highwater mark of the rebellion had been 
reached. Gettysburg settled the fate of the Confederacy, for the 
waning manpower of the South was unequal to replacing the terrible 
losses incurred. Lee retired into Virginia, slowly followed by the 
Union forces. 

Campaigns ix the West Dihixg 1863. 

1. Capture of Vickst)urg.—h\ the fall of 1862 Grant turned his 
attention to Vieksbui-g, the great Confederate stronghold cm the 
Mississippi. The i)romotion of Halleck to Commander-in-Cliief of 
the Union armies left Grant in superior command in the West. 
Weary weeks of maneuvering failed to put him in a position to do 
any serious damage to the city. Confederate raids on Union supply 

114 



depots also delayed the project." The Confederate general Van Dorn 
captured Holly Springs and burned over a million dollars worth of 
supplies. At the same time General Forrest cut Grant's communica- 
tions by a raid into Tennessee. 

At length Grant conceived a plan of attack that was destined to 
bring him success. In the spring of 1863, he moved his troops to the 
west bank of the river above Vicksburg, marched them south through 
Arkansas, and again reached the river below Vicksburg. Here he 
was joined by Porter's fleet, which had run past the forts at night. 
Porter ferried the army across to the east bank of the river and the 
combined force captured (May 3) Grand Gulf, a Confederate posi- 
tion guarding one of the approaches to Vicksburg. However, the 
•Union army was still in a critical position. At Vicksburg was Gen- 
eral Pemberton with a force nearly as large as Grant's, while at Jack- 
son, Miss., was another smaller Confederate force under General 
Joseph E. Johnston. These two Confederate armies were trying to 
effect a junction against Grant. The Union commander now acted 
quickly. Turning against Johnston, he routed his force in the battle 
of Raymond. Pie then turned to meet Pemberton, who was advancing 
against him. In the battle of Champion Hill Pemberton lost all his 
artillery and several thousand men, and was forced to shut himself up 
in Vicksburg. -Grant now laid siege to the city. An attempt to carry 
the works by storm had proved so costly that he had no other course 
than to adopt the slow process of starving out the enemy. On July 3, 
while the battle of Gettysburg was raging in the East, Pemberton sur- 
rendered his entire force of nearly 40,000 men, together with great 
quantities of arms and ammunition. Port Hudson surrendered to 
General Banks a few days later^ and the Union task of opening the 
Mississippi was complete. Thereafter gunboats patrolled the river 
and prevented any communication between the severed parts of the 
Confederacy. 

2. Chickamauga and Chattanooga. — While Grant was attacking 
Vicksburg, Rosecrans' army was inactive at Murfreesborough with 
orders to watch Bragg to prevent his giving aid to Pemberton. With 
the opening of the Mississippi Rosecrans was free to advance on 
Chattanooga. Grant was now commander of the armies in the West, 
and meanwhile was moving eastward to join Rosecrans. At 
Chickamauga Creek on the Georgia-Tennessee border Rosecrans en- 
gaged Bragg 's force of 70,000 men. Had it not been for the heroic 
stand of General Thomas, "Rock of Chickamauga," the Union army 
would have been routed. As it was, Rosecrans found himself cooped 
up in Chattanooga, cut off from proper supplies. 

115 



3. Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. — Late in October 
Grant arrived at Chattanoof^a and personally assumed command. 
Sherman soon brought up Grant's old army, and, in all, the Union 
forces totalled 80,000 men. Grant was now ready to force the passes 
in the mountains leading to the East. Tn November Sherman and 
Hooker were sent to storm the Confederate position on Lookout IMoun- 
tain. This the Union troops carried by magnificent charges. The 
whole Union army was nex^t day centered on the remaining Confed- 
erate position on Missionary Ridge. This, too, was carried by storm 
in the face of heavy fire. Bragg "s army now fled in wild disorder 
and took refuge in the mountains of Georgia. After this campaign 
about the only territory remaining in the hands of the Confederates 
was the region east of the mountains. 

Campaign in the East During 1864. 

1. The Wilderness. — Tn the s])ring of 1864 Grant was made 
Commander-in-Chief of the armies of the I'^nited States, with head- 
quarters witli Army of the Potomac in northern Virginia. His plan 
of campaign embodied two great objectives. Sherman was to move 
against Johnston, who had succeeded Bragg, with Atlanta. Georgia, as 
his goal. Grant himself was to begin a "hammering" campaign 
against Richmond, with the purpose of wearing down. Lee's army by 
making iiim engage at every opportunity. Grant knew that it would 
only be a question of time before the Union preponderance in men 
and materials would result in the crushing of the Confederate forces. 

Witli an army double in size to the opposing Confederate force, 
he crossed the Rapidan in May and entered tlie Wilderness, near 
the old battleground of Chancellorsville. Here lie was attacked by 
Lee. For two days the opposing armies waged a hand-to-hand strug- 
gle, with little advantage to either side, and with a combined loss of 
nearly thirty thousand men. Grant then withdrew from the Wilder- 
ness, made a hurried movement round the Confederate flank and al- 
most got between Lee and Richmond. 

2. Spottsylvania. — Lee discovered his danger and retired just 
in time. The two armies came in contact at Spott.sylvania Court 
House, and here another terrific battle was fought, four days after 
that of the Wilderness. Hancock flattened a salient in the Confeder- 
ate line and captured over four thousand of the enemy. In five 
desperate attempts to retake the position, Lee suffered enormous losses. 
Spottsylvania brought Grant within twenty miles of Richmond. 

3. Cold Ilarhor. — Lee had taken up a very strong position at 
Cold Harbor. Having no point of attack other than in front. Grant 

116 



determined to make an assault, the greatest military blunder of his 
life. The Union troops were mowed down by thousands. After a 
fruitless sacrifice of nearly 12,000 men. Grant gave up the attempt. 
He now changed his base to a point below Petersburg in order to 
approach Richmond from the South. 

4. Early's Raid up the Shenandoah. — In the hope of relieving 
Richmond and Petersburg and of drawing off the Union forces as 
did Jackson during the Peninsular Campaign, Lee now ordered Gen- 
eral Early to threaten Washington by moving up the Shenandoah 
Valley. Early passed within a few miles of the capital and pene- 
trated as far north as Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. Despite the in- 
tense excitement in Washington, Grant refused to be diverted from 
his objective. Instead, he sent General Sheridan to drive Early out 
of the Shenandoah. With nearly 40,000 men Sheridan engaged Early 
in an indecisive battle at Winchester, Virginia. A few weeks later 
the two armies met again at the same place and this time the Union 
forces won a clear victory. 

5. Cedar Creek. — Sheridan then set to work to destroy everything 
of value in the Valley that would support an 'army. He laid waste 
the country to such an extent that further Confederate raids up the 
Shenandoah were rendered impossible, since the enemy had for months 
been existing chiefly through foraging the country o^er which it 
passed. Meanwhile, Sheridan's main force was encamped at Cedar 
Creek. In the absence of the Union commander. Early suddenly at- 
tacked, with heavy re-enforcements. Thrown into confusion, the 
Union forces lost their camp and were retreating precipitately when 
the timely arrival of Sheridan prevented further disaster. Rallying 
his men, he not only recovered his camp, but drove Early's men head- 
long down the Valley, practically destroying the Confederate force. 

Campaigns South of Virginia Dttring 1864. 

1. Advance on Atlanta. — Simultaneous with Grant's wilderness 
Campaign, Sherman began his advance upon Atlanta. After having 
suffered a costly repulse at Kenesaw Mountain, by a series of brilliant 
flank movements he drove Johnston's army before him, and took 
one pass after another. General Hood now replaced Johnston in 
command. In a series of battles near Atlanta, Hood was outfought, 
and outgeneraled to such an extent that he had to abandon the city.. 
Early in September Sherman entered and took possession. The fall 
of Atlanta was a severe blow to the South, for in that city were located 
munition and supply factories that had been sustaining the Confeder- 
ate armies. 

117 



2. Mobil' Bay. — Mobile Bay was the most important harbor on 
the Gulf coast, and had lonj:^ been a rendezvous for blockade runners. 
At length, Admiral Farragiit was entrusted with the task of closing 
this port. In August, with the cooperation of a land force vuider 
General Granger, Farragut attacked Forts Gaines and Morgan, which 
guarded the entrance to the bay. Back of the forts were a rained 
area and a Confederate fleet under Admiral Buchanan. The Union 
fleet advanced amid a storm of shot and shell and soon silenced the 
forts. In a short decisive battle Farragut destroyed the Confederate 
fleet. The city of Mobile itself remained in Confederate hands for a 
number of weeks longer, but the great port was now closed to Confed- 
erate commerce. 

3. Sherman's March Through Georgia. — Hoping to draw 
Sherman away from Atlanta Hood's army moved into Tennessee, but 
the Union commander merely detached a force under Thomas to fol- 
low the Confederates. In November Sherman's main army set out to 
ravage Georgia between Atlanta and the coast. Moving in four 
columns, the Union force laid waste a country fifty miles wide and 
three hundred miles long. Loss of the interior of Georgia was a 
severe blow to the Confederacy, since it was this section, together with 
the Carolines, upon which Lee depended to furnish the food upon 
which his army subsisted. Upon the approach of the Federal troops 
Savannah avSs evacuated and late in December Sherman occupied the 
city. 

4. Destruction of Hood's Army. — Hood had gone into Tennessee 
wdth 50,000 men, while opposed to him was Thomas with less than 
30,000. Thomas received re-enforcements at Nashville and there 
awaited Hood. In the ensuing battles of Franklin and Nashville 
Hood's army was practically destroyed, being scattered so widely that 
it was never reorganized. This defeat suffered by the Confederates 
was perhaps the most decisive of the war. 

5. Confed( rate C&mmerce Destroyers. — No account of the Civil 
War is complete without some attention being given to the work of the 
Confederate commerce destro.yers. Great Britain's sympathy for the 
Confederacy influenced her to fit out in British waters a number of 
cruisers designed to destroy Union comnierce. Among the most 
famous of these ships were the Alabama, the Florida, and tiie Shenan- 
doah. These English-built ships were manned by Confederate officers 
and men. After two years of preying on merchantmen, during which 
time she destroyed ten million dollars' worth of property, the Alabama 
was at la.st sunk off Cherbourg, France, 1864, by the U. S. S. Kear- 
sarge, Capt. Winslow. The career of the Alabama is typical of a 

118 



score or more of Confederate raiders, some of which remained active 
for several months after the cessation of hostilities. The damage in- 
flicted by these ships became the subject of serious controversy be- 
tween the United States and Great Britain, which was finally settled 
by a court of arbitration in Grant 's administration. 

Concluding Events op the War (1865). 

1. Grant Closes in an Richmond. — The spring of 1865 opened 
with Grant's army before Petersburg ready to crush out what little 
life remained in the Confederacy. Lee despaired of holding Rich- 
mond but delayed his evacuation of the city in the hope that Johnston 
might be able to join him from the Carolinas. In the meantime, 
Sheridan, having disposed of Early's Confederate force in the Shenan- 
doah, closed in on Richmond from the west. When close to Richmond 
Sheridan met a strong Confederate force under General Pickett. 
Here occurred the battle of Five Forks, in which Sheridan utterly 
routed the Confederates. On the following day Grant carried the 
works at Petersburg by assault. Lee had now no course open but to 
evacuate the capital. 

2. Sherman's Move Northward Through the Carolinas. — Follow- 
ing the capture of Savannah, Sherman moved northward along the- 
coast mth a view to joining Grant before Richmond. He endeavored 
to keep continually between Johnston and Lee in order that the former, 
who had a small force in the Carolinas, might not aid in the defense 
of Richmond. Early in January a strong naval force under Admiral 
Porter, assisted by a land force under General Terry, in a desperate 
engagement captured Fort Fisher, which guarded Wilmington, N. C. 
With the fall of Fort Fisher, the last open port of the Confederacy 
fell into Union hands. On the approach of Sherman Charleston was 
abandoned. The tieeing Confederates first set fire to the great stores 
of cotton, and the flames spread until much of the city was laid in 
ruins. Columbia was occupied in February and Goldsboro in March. 

3. Surrender at Appomattox. — Lee had hoped to escape to the 
mountains of southwestern Virginia with part of his force. He knew 
that in that rugged country he could prolong the struggle for a con- 
siderable period. Having abandoned the capital, the Confederate 
army was retiring rapidly toward Lynchburg when Lee found 
Sheridan barring his way. Grant's army was in hot pursuit. Unwill- 
ing to sacrifice more lives uselessly, Lee now asked for terms of sur- 
render for his starving army. On April 9 he surrendered his entire 
force at Appomattox Court House. 

119 



A few days later Jolinston surrendered his army to Sherman near 
the North Carolina- Virginia line. The Confederacy had fallen and 
the Civil War was at an end. 

4. The Thirteenth Amendment. — In 1865 tlie Constitution was 
amended to prohibit forever slavery in the United States. Nearly all 
slaves had g:ained their freedom prior to this, but the amendment 
:giiaranteed their freedom in the future. 

5. Assassinatian of Lincoln. — Hardly had the war ended when 
the nation was shocked to learn of the murder of the President. Lin- 
coln had been re-elected in 1864 and had served but a few weeks of his 
rsecond term. While attending a performance at Ford's Theatre in 
Washinjrton, he was shot by John Wilkes Booth, an actor. 

No section suffered as greatly by the death of the President as 
did the South. Had Lincoln lived, the people of the seceded states 
•would, in all probability, have been spared much of the hardship inci- 
dent to Ri'construction and carpetbag rule. 

The death of Lincoln left the Vice-President, Andrew Johnson, to 
succeed him in office. Johnson, a Tennessean, had been chosen be- 
cause he was one of the few Southern members of Congress to remain 
staunchly loyal to the Union. He had little fitness for the Presidency, 
particularly in the face of the gigantic tasks confronting him. 

ANDREW JOHNSON'S AmiINISTRATION. 
1865-1869. 

~l. Maximilian Affair in Mexico. 

During the Civil W^ar an attempt was made by the French gov- 
ernment to conquer Mexico, in violation of the Monroe Doctrine. Un- 
der pretense of collecting a debt due France, a French army was dis- 
patched to ^lexico. The Republic was overthrown and Maximilian, 
archduke of Austria, was made head of the new Mexican monarchy. 
Maximilian held his throne under protection of the French army. In 
1863 the French were warned against their action. At the close of the 
war, however, the soldiers of France were still in Mexico. Secretary 
Seward now boldly demanded the withdrawal of tlie troops and at the 
same time sent a force of 50,000 men under Sheriden to the Texan 
border. The French army was quickly recalled, but Maximilian, be- 
lieving that he had won the confidence of the Mexican people, re- 
mained as emperor. To his surprise the Mexicans immediately rose in 
revolt and his government was soon overthrown. In 1867 Maximilian 
was executed. 

120 



2. Plans for Reconstruction in the South. 

(a) The Presidential Theory. — That the Southern states had the 
right to send members to Congress as soon as the President considered 
the states properly penitent, since a state could not by right secede, 
and therefore had never been out of the Union. This was the view 
held by Lincoln and later, in a modified form, advanced by Johnson. 

(h) The State Suicide Theory. — That by the act of secession the 
states lost statehood, and thereby became territories, to be governed by 
Congress. 

(c) The Forfeited Rights Theory. — That the states were still in 
the Union, but through traitorous acts of the community as a whole, 
had made themselves subject to punishment which would reach them 
as states. 

(d) The Conquered Province Theory. — That the South was a sub- 
jugated region with which Congress could deal exactly as though it 
were a part of a conquered foreign territory. This view was held by 
Thaddeus Stevens, Republican leader in the House. 

(e) The Congressional Plan. — Reconstruction as finally brought 
about by Congress was a modification of the above-mentioned plans. 
It provided that the seceded states, before they could come back into 
the Union, must frame new constitutions, must give the negro the right 
to vote, and must ratify the Fourteenth Amendment, which gave him 
the rights of citizenship. In the meantime the South was divided into 
five military districts, with martial rule supplanting the civil govern- 
ment. Troops were to be kept in the districts until the states were 
readmitted. The process of reconstruction was necessarily slow and 
was not completed until Hayes's Administration. In the meantime 
the negro was exercising his new privilege of voting and under the 
influence of unscrupulous Northern politicians, called Carpetbaggers, 
had in a number of instances secured virtual control of the state gov- 
ernments. Many of the prominent whites in the South were still dis- 
franchised. In order to protect themselves against the evils of negro 
domination, these former slaveholders organized a secret society, 
known as the Klu Klux Klan. Playing as it did upon the fears and 
superstitions of the negroes, the Klu Klux proved instrumental in 
preventing crime and in keeping the former slaves within bounds. 

3. The Tenure of Office Act. 

President Johnson wished to apply Lincoln's theory of Recon- 
struction, with certain modifications of his own that would exclude 
from a share in the state governments a large part of the former slave- 
holding element, in order that the Southern whites of the lower classes 

121 



might have more privileges. The tactless way in which he tried to 
carry out his ideas ])rought him immediately into conflict with Con- 
gress. So bitter did the controversy grow that Congress, hoping to 
entrap the President, enacted the Tenure of Oflfice Act, which prohib- 
ited the President's removing any member of his Cabinet without 
first gaining the consent of the Senate. 

4. Impeachment of Johnson. 

Johnspn ignored the Tenure of Office Act and soon summarily dis- 
missed Secretary of War Stanton. This was the opportunity that 
Congress had been seeking. Impeachment proceedings were immedi- 
ately instituted. Under the Constitution tlie right of impeachment 
rests with the House while the Senate tries all such cases. The great 
trial lasted for weeks and was watched with breathless interest, for if 
Johnson were convicted, he would ])e removed from office. The final 
vote was taken in May, 1868, and it was found that the President had 
escaped removal by an extremely narrow margin. In fact, one addi- 
tional vote against him would have convicted. 

5. Purchase of Alaska. 

In 1867 Secretary of State Seward completed negotiations with 
Russia that acquired for us the vast territory of Alaska. At the time 
the purchase price of $7,200,000 was considered excessive by many. 
It is probable that Seward wa.s influenced in acquiring the region both 
by a desire to show gratitude for Russia's friendly attitude to the 
United States during the Civil War, and by his farsightedness in 
realizing the future value of that supposedly barren region. 

6. First Successful Atlantic Cable. 

The first really successful Atlantic cable was laid by Cyrus Field 
in 1866. Field had laid a cable between the British Isles and America 
as early as 1858, but it remained in operation only a few days. War 
conditions then prevented another attempt until Johnson's Adminis- 
tration. 

7. Union Pacific Railroad. 

During the Civil War work was begun on the first trans-conti- 
nental railroad, connecting California with lines already built as far 
west as Omaha. This great engineering project was pushed steadily 
during Johnson's term and reached completion under Grant in 1869. 
No other factor contributed as greatly to the development of the Far 
West as did this railroad and other similar lines. 

122 



ADMINISTRATIONS OF ULYSSES S. GRANT. 

1869-1877. 

1. The Fifteentlj, Amendment. 

In the election of 1868 Grant won easily over Horatio Seymour, 
the Democratic candidate. Reconstruction was still under way in the 
Southern states. In 1870, by the Fifteenth Amendment, the negro was 
given the right of suffrage. 

2. The Alabama Controversy. 

Despite the strong protests of our minister, Charles Francis 
Adams, Great Britain had given direct aid to the Confederacy during 
the Civil War by allowing Confederate commerce destroyers to be 
fitted out in her ports. For several years after the war, the United 
States government was unable to secure satisfactory reparation for 
damage done to Union shipping by these raiders. Finally, a change 
in ministry in England brought into power a political party favorable 
to American interests. In 1871 a Joint High Commission drew up an 
agreement known as the Treaty of Washington, in which a way was 
provided for the settlement of the Alabama Controversy, as well as 
for the adjustment of certain boundary and fishing disputes between 
the two countries. 

By the Treaty of Washington it was agreed that the matter of 
the Alabama claims should be settled l)y an international arbitration 
tribunal to meet in Switzerland. The tribunal consisted of a represen- 
tative from each of the following countries — the United States, Great 
Britain, Switzerland, Italy and Brazil. This arbitration court met at 
Geneva in 1872 and after several weeks of debate awarded the United 
States damages to the amount of $15,000,000 for violation of the neu- 
trality laws on the part of Great Britain. 

As further provided by the Treaty of Washington the dispute be- 
tween the United States and Great Britain over the Northwest boun- 
dary was decided by the German Emperor, as arbiter. This decision 
was also favorable to the United States and by it we acquired a group 
of islands in Puget Sound. 

A third arbitration commission in 1877 took up the question of 
privileges claimed by American fishermen on the coast of Canada. 
This matter of fishing rights, was decided against the United States, 
and was settled by our paying a sum of $5,500,000. 

3. The Virginius Affair. 

In 1873, the steamer Virginius, carrying arms to the Cuban revo- 
lutionists, was captured on the high seas by a Spanish cruiser and a 
number of Americans were put to death. A recognition of the bellig- 

123 



erency of the Cuban revolutionists and perhaps war with Spain were 
only averted by Spain's agreeing to pay an indemnity to the families 
of the dead Americans. 

4. Exploration in the Southwest. 

In 1869 Major Powell completed a remarkable and dangerous 
exploring trip do\Mi the Colorado river. In specially constructed 
boats Powell and a few companions drifted through the unknown 
region of the Grand Canyon and emerged safely at the head of tlie Gulf 
of California. 

5. The Panic of 1873. 

During the decade following the Civil War nearly 40,000 miles 
of railroad were built. This rapid business expansion together with 
a period of fierce speculation, accompanied by heavy business losses 
tlirough the Chicago and Boston fires, was perhaps the chief factor in 
causing the wide-spread business depression that swept over the coun- 
try in 1873.' The failure of the great banking house of Jay Cooke and 
Company precipitated commercial failures totaling nearly a quarter 
of a billion dollars. 

During the latter part of Grant's second term the country rapidly 
recovered from the effects of the panic. Business confidence was re- 
stored when in 1875 an act of Congress paved the way for the resump- 
tion of specie payment. For a decade the paper currency of the Civil 
War period had been slowly rising to its face value. 

6. Political Corruption. 

Grant was a soldier, not a politician. Under the cloak of his well- 
known honesty, fraud and corruption in public office flourished to 
probably a greater extent than at any other time in the history of the 
United States. Never before had opportunities for graft been so great 
as during the Reconstruction period ; contracts for supplies of all 
kinds proved gold mines to the unscnipnlous. The famous "Tweed 
Ring" of New York City stole millions from the taxpayers. Secretary 
of War Belknap was found to be selling, for his personal gain, the 
privileges to trade at army posts. A Whisky Ring, consisting of dis- 
tillers and dishonest revenue agents, defrauded the government of 
millions of dollars by means of false accounts. Members of Congress 
were taking bribes of all kinds, particularly from the Credit Mobilier, 
a corporation building the Union Pacific Railroad. 

Such disgraceful conditions gave rise to a reform movement in the 
Hepubliean party which demanded civil service reform, a lowering of 
the protective tariff by which a few manufacturers were enriching 
themselves at the cost of the people, and the end of military and car- 

124 



pet-bag control in the South. Calling themselves Liberal Republicans, 
this reform branch of the Republican party might have defeated 
Grant in the election of 1872 had they not chosen Horace Greeley for 
their candidate. The Democrats supported Greeley but he was too 
weak a choice to be acceptable to the country at large. Consequently 
Grant was re-elected by an overwhelming majority. 

Grant had induced Congress to pass a civil service act in 1871, but 
its passage was intended merely as a sop to the good will of the Presi- 
dent, for the Republican leaders had no intention of enforcing the act 
and soon made it a dead letter by cutting off the necessary appropria- 
tions. 

7. Indian Wars. 

The government's dealings with the Indians were so marked by 
dishonesty during these administrations that serious uprisings oc- 
curred at a number of points in the West. The Modoc Indians of Cali- 
fornia killed peace commissioners sent to treat with them, tied to the 
lava bed region in the northern part of the state, and there for months 
held off all government forces sent against them. 

In 1876 war occurred with the powerful Sioux tribes of Dakota, 
Montana and Wyoming. Under the able leadership of Sitting Bull, 
the Indians entrapped General Custer with a force of about 200 caval- 
rymen. In what is known as the Battle of the Big Horn, Custer's en- 
tire force was wiped out before aid could reach him. With the coming 
of a strong military force the Indian uprising subsided, many of the 
savages fleeing across the Canadian border. 

8. Hayes-Tilden Controversy. 

The election of 1876 resulted in practically a tie between Ruther- 
ford B. Hayes, the Republican candidate, and Samuel J. Tilden, the 
Democratic candidate. Tilden received the greatest number of popu- 
lar votes, and needed the total of 185 electoral votes to win. He 
secured 184 of these with the returns not in from three doubtful 
states. South Carolina, Florida and Louisiana. In Louisiana Tilden 
apparently had a lead of several thousand votes. However, the un- 
settled condition of these Reconstructed states and the large negro vote 
undoubtedly resulted in fraud, probably on both sides. The Republi- 
cans, being in power, had a great advantage in deciding upon the 
validity of the returns from the doubtful states. The Democrats final- 
ly conceded South Carolina and Florida to the Republicans, but 
naturally claimed Louisiana, where the returns showed a substantial 
majority for Tilden. But charges of fraud were made by both sides, 
and the election was finally left to Congress to decide. The Senate 

125 



being Republican and the House Democratic, a deadlock again oc- 
curred, neither side being willing to give way. It was then decided 
to leave the decision to an Electoral Commission, to consist of fifteen 
members, five of these from the House, five from the Senate, and five 
from tlie Sui)reme Court. Seven members were Rpublicans and seven 
were Democrats ; the fifteenth member was an Independent. However, 
the Independent member died before the commission met and his suc- 
cessor proved to be a Republican. The decision was then made on a 
purely partisan basis and Hayes was declared elected by a vote of 8 
to 7. 

RUTHERFORD B. HAYES' ADMINISTRATION. 
1877-1881. 

1. hid list Hal Cha/nges. 

Due to tlie election dispute of 1876, President Hayes found him- 
self under a heavy handicap when he took office. A large percentage 
of the voters of the country were still under the conviction that Tilden 
had unjustly been deprived of the Presidency. Particularly was 
Hayes condemned for the conciliatory attitude toward the South that 
led him to remove the troops from that section, and for his honest and 
well-meant attempts to reform the corrupt Republican party machine. 
In the decade following the Civil War a gradual change had been 
taking place in industrial, commercial and labor fields, owing to the 
formation of labor unions, improved methods of manufacturing, and 
better trade facilities. This period marks the beginning of the con- 
flict between labor and capital that has left its impress on American 
history to the present time. The Panic of 1873 with its resultant 
period of business depression and hard times made pronounced the un- 
rest of the working classes and strengthened tlie labor unions. Labor 
now began to agitate for definite reforms. Demands were made for a 
shorter working day, for the exclusion of Chinese labor, for govern- 
ment supervision of industry, for fewer land grants to railroads and 
other corporations, for an income tax, for new currency legislation, 
and for a national Department of Labor. Parallel to the rise of the 
power of labor was tlie development of the great corporations. These 
corporations fr<M|uently secured monopolies in various lines of l)usi- 
ness. The Standard Oil Company, the Pennsylvania Railroad, the 
great express companies, and scores of other corporations attained 
national importance through expansion, eonsolidation, stock manipu- 
lation, etc. The Greenback-Labor party was exercising tremendous 
influence in the state and congressional elections. This pronounced 
movement along industrial and labor lines ])elongs properly to no one 

126 



Administration, but it serves to point out some of the difficult prob- 
lems that confronted Hayes and his successors for the next quarter of 
a century. 

The question of Chinese labor received much attention in Hayes' 
Administration. By the Burlingame Treaty of 1868, the Chinese im- 
migrant had been accorded the same privileges in the United States 
that were enjoyed by other foreigners. The influx of cheap coolie 
labor soon grew so alarming, however, that by 1877, a strong coast 
ment was set on foot to protect American labor on the Pacific coast 
by the exclusion of this undesirable element. Hayes sent a commission 
to China to prepare the way for a treaty that would restrict Mongo- 
lian immigration. This was the beginning of negotiations that led to 
a Chinese exclusion act a few years later. 

2, Bland-Allison Silver Act. 

Prior to Hayes' term very little silver had been coined at the 
United States mints. The government had for years, however, offered 
to accept silver for coinage on a basis of 16 to 1, or 16 ounces of silver 
to be exchanged for one ounce of gold. Since jewelers and manufac- 
turers were ready to pay a slightly higher price for silver it was 
natural that the producers of this metal should prefer to dispose of 
their product in the open market. Following 1873, however, enormous 
deposits of silver were discovered in the far West. The market was 
now flooded and the metal began rapidly to depreciate in value. 
Anxious to maintain prices, the silver mine owners of the West again 
turned to the government, demanding a resumption of silver coinage. 
A bill prepared by Representative Bland of Missouri and Senator 
Allison of Iowa now came up in Congress, providing that the govern- 
ment purchase not less than $2,000,000 worth nor more than $4,000,- 
000 worth of silver each month. In 1878 the Bland- Allison bill passed 
Congress and, despite Hayes' veto, became a law. 

3. Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Strike. 

In 1877 employees of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad went on 
strike and tied up a large part of the trade east of the Mississippi. 
Sympathetic strikes in various other industries followed, creating 
widespread disorder. Millions of dollars' worth of railroad and other 
property was destroyed. The state authorities proved powerless to 
cope with the situation, and eventually United States troops had to 
be called to restore order. These strikes were the first of a series of 
similar events attendant upon the efforts of the labor unions to secure 
recognition from the corporations during the next forty years. 

127 



4. The Election of 1880. 

At the Republican Convention at Chicago the names of both 
Grant and Blaine came up for the Presidency. Grant was being 
"boomed" for a third term by the Republican regulars, while Blaine's 
claims were supported by an equally strong opposition element in the 
party. -After thirty-five ballots had been taken without a choice, it 
was evident that neither Grant nor Blaine could be nominated. Final- 
ly there was a stampede to the support of the delegates pledged to 
James A. Garfield of Ohio. He was not the choice of the party as a 
whole, but was merely on the crest of the popular wave when the 
break occurred. In the face of a united Democratic party, the war- 
ring factions were forced to accept Garfield as their candidate. The 
Democrats at their convention chose General Hancock. The results 
of tlie election showed that Garfield had received 214 electoral votes 
to Hancock's 155. 

THE ADMINISTRATION OF GARFIELD AND ARTHUR. 

1881-1885. 

1. Assassination of Garfield. 

A i)laiik in tlie Republican platform in 1880 had declared for 
civil service reform. It was generally believed tliat the party would 
redeem its pledges by effective legislation along that line, so, in proba- 
bly what would be their last opportunity to avail themselves of the 
spoils system, the ofifice-hungry Republicans besieged the President in 
an exceptionally wild S('raml)le for places. Garfield's independence in 
the matter of appointments, therefore, attracted the enmity of many 
of these disappointed office-seekers. One of these, a man named 
Guiteau, shot down the President a few months after his inauguration, 
as he was about to board a train in Union Station, "Washington. Several 
weeks later the President died from the effects of the wound. Chester 
A. Arthur, the Vice-President, was immediately sworn into office. The 
remainder of the term, under Arthur, is inarked by few great or stir- 
ring events. 

2. The Pendleton Civil Service Act. 

The assassination of President Garfield had thoroughly aroused 
the country to the need of a radical change in the selection of the gov- 
ernment employees. In 1883 Congress passed the Pendleton Civil 
Service Bill, whereby candidates for many of the government positions 
were selected by competitive examination, and were to hold their 
places regardless of changing administrations. Furthermore, ofifiee- 
holders were not to be subjected to assessment for campaign purposes, 

128 



as had been the practice in the past. Successive presidents thereafter 
have greatly enlarged the list of employees affected by the civil service 
system until today a great majority of the employees of the govern- 
ment hold their positions on merit alone. 

3. The Edmunds Act. 

The practice of polygamy by the Mormons in the Territory of 
Utah had become so objectionable that at last Congress took measures 
to abolish it. The Edmunds Act was supplemented by more drastic 
anti-polygamy legislation in Cleveland's administration. The Mor- 
mon church withdrew its sanction of the practice, and in 1896 Utah 
was admitted to Statehood. 

4. Chinese Exclusion Act. 

In this administration the admission to this country of Chinese 
laborers, was suspended for a period of ten years. From time to time 
other acts directed at Chinese immigration have effectively served to 
bar this undesirable class. 

5. Tariff of 1883. 

By 1883 the revenues of the country had swelled to such an ex- 
tent that it was thought desirable to lower the tariff. An act was 
passed but failed to reduce the surplus. The question of free trade 
or protection now became increasingly important as the United States 
began to make enormous strides in foreign trade development. 

6. The Election of 1884. 

In the election of 1884 the Republican candidate was James G. 
Blaine of Maine, who had been Garfield's Secretary of State, and the 
Democratic candidate was Grover Cleveland of New York. A num- 
ber of Republicans who had declared in favor of civil service reform 
were warmly opposed to the nomination of Blaine. This branch of the 
Republican party was known as "Mugwumps." Owing to the fact 
that the Mugwumps, or Independent Republicans, cast their votes for 
Cleveland, the election of 1884 gave Cleveland a small majority. Thus 
the party that had been in power for a quarter of a century lost its 
supremacy and the first Democratic president since the Civil War 
came into office. 



129 



CLEVELAND'S FIRST ADMTNLSTRATION. 

1885-1889. 

A Repu])licaii majority in the Senate served to prevent Cleveland 
from carrying out Democratic party pledges. Particularly, was the 
President unable to secure legislation along the lines of tariff reduc- 
tion. He was convinced that the best way to reduce the government's 
surplus revenue was to lower the tariff. His independence and deter- 
mination inevitably brought him into conflict with Congress. But the 
great comporations, or "Trusts" as they were beginning to be called, 
had prospered under high protective tariff and now exerted enough 
influence to maintain this high tariff against the President's vigorous 
efforts. 

1. The Presidential Succession Law. 

In 1886 an act was passed providing for succession to the presi- 
dency in the event of the death or disability of the President and Vice- 
President. The various Cabinet officers were to become President in 
the order in which the Cabinet officers had been created. This order 
was as follows : Secretary of State, Secretary of Treasury, Secretary 
of War, Attorney-General, Postmaster-General, Secretary of the Navy, 
Secretaries of the Interior, Agriculture, Commerce and Labor. 

2. Repeal of Tenure of Office Act. 

In the same year in which the Presidential Succession Law was 
passed Congress repealed the unjust Tenure of Office Act, which had 
been passed in Johnson's administration and for the violation of which 
he had been impeached. Cleveland believed firmly that the act was 
unconstitutional and its repeal is due chiefly to his determined stand 
in the matter. 

3. Labor TrouMes. 

The struggle between capital and labor grew in bitferness during 
this administration, and destructive strikes doubled in number. The 
most serious of these disorders occurred during an anarchists' meet- 
ing in Haymarket Square, Chicago. The explosion of a bomb caused 
the deatli of several persons and the injury of scores. Cleveland, in 
an effort to remedy the labor troubles recommended the creation of a 
national labor commission with power to settle controversies. Con- 
gress, liowever, failed to take action in the niatter. 

4. TJir Jnfrrsfafe Commerce Commission. 

Throughout the West there had grown up a strong sentiment in 
favor of restricting the great railroad corporations in the exercise of 
their monopolies. Extortion and discrimination were so widespread 

130 



that Congress was forced to a party recognition of public sentiment in 
the matter. Under the Constitution Congress has power to regulate 
commerce between states. In 1887 the Interstate Commerce Act was 
passed, which forbade discrimination in rates, prohibited the "pool- 
ing" of traffic, required the railroads to file their tariff^s for public in- 
spection, and provided that railroad cases be tried in federal court. 
The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, while in many respects a dead 
letter that failed to remedy the situation, was valuable in that it fur- 
nished a basis for very effective supplementary measures such as the 
Hepburn Rate Act of Roosevelt's administration and other control 
acts passed during Taft's term. 

5. The Election of 1888. 

In the campaign of 1888 the question of the tariff overshadowed 
all other considerations. The Republicans nominated Benjamin Har- 
rison, grandson of the former Whig president, and placed their hopes 
in a protection platform. The Democrats renominated Cleveland. In 
the election Harrison received a majority of the electoral votes despite 
Cleveland's 100,000 plurality. The factors contributing most to the 
Democratic defeat were Cleveland's loss of the support of the Civil 
War veterans by his veto of a number of pension bills and by his order 
restoring to the South captured Confederate flags, and his loss of the 
pivotal state of New York on the question of the tariff. However, his 
fearless discharge of his duties as chief executive, his able handling of 
the problems that confronted him and his courageous attitude on the 
question of civil service, the trusts, and the tariff, had won him a 
large measure of respect throughout the country, as evidenced by his 
large plurality. All this contributed to restore him to office later. 

In the election of 1888 the Australian system of secret balloting 
was first used. 

BENJAMIN HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. 

1889-1893. 

1. The McKinley Tariff Act. 

One of the earliest acts of President Harrison's administration 
was the passage of the McKinley Tariff Bill, providing a high protect- 
ive tariff. The Democrats in the election of 1888 had stood for tariff 
for revenue only. The McKinley tariff was the redemption of party 
promises and pledges on the part of the Republicans. By the tarijff 
of 1883 the average duties were placed at about 45%. The McKinley 
tariff raised these duties to approximately 50%. 

131 



2. Pension Act. 

Since the Republicans owed their victory in 1888 largely to the 
vote of former Union soldiers, action was at once taken on the pension 
question. In 1890 an act was passed whereby the pension outlay 
leaped to nearly $150,000,000 a year. Aid was not only given to 
former soldiers but to the dependents of these also. 

3. The Sherman Silver Law. 

In Harrison's administration tlie Bland- Allison silver law was 
repealed and the Sherman silver act substituted. The latter act pro- 
vided for the purchase each month of 4.500,000 ounces of silver at the 
market price. For each gold dollar's worth of silver purchased an 
equivalent amount in treasury notes should be issued and these notes 
should be legal tender for all debts. Tiiis law had been urged by the 
silver interests in the West, because silver was still depreciating in 
value despite the Bland-Allison law passed several years before. The 
effect of the Sherman law was to increase the circulation of money, 
but it, also, failed to raise the price of silver or even to maintain the 
price at its former level. 

4. The Sherman Anti-Trust Act. 

In 1890 the Sherman anti-Trust law was passed, making illegal all 
contracts to create monopolies in restraint of competition. This law, 
however, was not enforced to any great extent until more recent ad- 
ministrations. A number of supplementary measures were enacted 
under Roosevelt and prosecution was then begun for violations of the 
Sherman anti-trust law. 

5. Rise of the Speakership. 

It was during Harrison's administration that the speakership of 
the House of Representatives became, under Speaker Thomas B. Reed, 
a position of exceptional power through the adoption of new and 
stringent rules intended to expedite tlie legislation of the party ma- 
jority in the House. From this tiine on the power of the speaker grew 
steadily until Taft's administration when the climax was reached un- 
der Speaker Joseph Cannon. A revolt on the part of members of the 
House at that time stripped the Speaker of much of his power. 

6. Samoan Affair. 

A number of immigrants from tlie United States living in the 
Samoan Islands in tlie South Pacific had asked that the islands be an- 
nexed to this country. Their recpiest was not entirely granted, but 
treaties were made with r.reat Britain and Germany whereby the 

132 



three nations were to exercise joint control over the islands. In 1889 
the United States had difficulty with Germany over the matter of a 
deposed native ruler. The German government evidently intended 
to oust America and Great Britain. Affairs assumed a critical aspect 
and each nation sent warships to the islands. An actual clash was 
probably only prevented by a terriffic gale which scattered the ships. 
The delay enabled the United States and Germany to reach an agree- 
ment. It was arranged that joint control be abandoned and that the 
islands be divided among the three nations. Great Britain disposed 
of her interests to Germany. The United States acquired the islands 
of Rose, Tutuila, and Manua, with the excellent harbor of Pago Pago. 

7. Bering Sea Controversy. 

Trouble between the United States and Great Britain over the 
seal fishing rights in the Bering Sea was settled in 1892 by an arbi- 
tration court, which met in Paris. The United States lost on every 
point of contention and was forced to pay damages for the seizure of 
eight British sealing vessels. 

8. Trouble with Chili. 

In 1891 a number of American sailors from the U. S. S. Balitmore, 
were assaulted and several killed by a mob in the streets of Valpar- 
aiso, Chili. The demands of our government for an apology and rep- 
aration were for a long time ignored. Finally the payment of an in- 
demnity by Chili averted war. 

9. Labor Trouhles. 

Labor disorders continued from Cleveland's administration and 
led to strikes and riots throughout the East. The most noted of these 
were the Homestead Riots in the coal regions of Pennsylvania. Most 
of these revolts were quelled by state militia, but in a few instances 
federal troops were called out. 

10. Hawaii. 

In January 1893 a revolution occurred in the Hawaiian Islands. 
The native queen was deposed and a provisional government set up 
through the aid of Americans living in the Islands. A treaty of an- 
nexation was submitted to the Senate, but it was speedily withdrawn 
by Cleveland when he came into office for his second term. Cleveland 
believed that annexation was the will of a few Americans rather than 
the sentiment of the people of the islands as a whole. 

11. World's Fair at Chicago. 

In 1893 the most famous of our great world expositions opened at 
Chicago, marking the three hundredth anniversary of the discovery of 
America. Formal opening occurred after Cleveland's inauguration. 

133 



12. Oklahoma. 

Most of the best goverenment land open for settlement had been 
exhausted by 1889. In that year Congress opened for settlement the 
region of Oklahoma, pnrehased from the Indians in Indian Territory. 
A great rush of homesteaders poured into the country and within a 
few weeks of its opening there had grown up several towns of consid- 
erable size. 

13. Election of 1892. 

The Republican party renominated Harrison, but Blaine was still 
the favorite with a great many members of the party. Cleveland was 
again the choice of the Democrats. A third party appeared in the 
election and polled over 1,000,000 votes. This was the People's, or 
Populist party, made up chiefly of voters from the West and from the 
labor element of the country. Cleveland was elected by a strong ma- 
jority, and not only was a Democratic House re-elected but the Repub- 
licans lost their long control of the Senate. For the first time since 
the Civil "War a Democratic administration had a majority in both 
branches of Congress. 

CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION. 
1893-1897. 

1. Panic of 1893. 

A period of financial depression due to the unsettled business con- 
ditions throughout the country as a result of the hoarding of gold by 
the people, the uncertainty about silver, over-production, and other 
less tangible causes. 

2. Repeal of the Sherman Silver Law. 

In an effort to relieve the widespread business depression felt all 
over the country in 1893, the President secured a repeal of the Sher- 
man Silver Act, under whose provisions the purchase of silver was 
draining the treasury of its gold surplus. This anti-silver legislation 
greatly strengthened the Populist party in the West. 

3. Wihon-Gorman Tariff. 

With a Democratic majority in Congress, Cleveland set about 
carrying out the party pledges for a reduction in the tariff. Repre- 
sentative Wilson of West Virginia introduced a bill providing for the 
removal of all duties on raw materials and for a material reduction on 
many manufactured articles. The bill easily passed the House, but in 
the Senate, under the leadership of Gorman of Maryland, the Wilson 
measure was changed beyond recognition by hundreds of amendments 

134 



in the interest of the powerful coal, sugar, iron and lumber companies, 
until the average of the duties was only slightly below that of the Mc- 
Kinley Tariff. Against the protests of the President, the House final- 
ly agreed to the measure in its amended form. Cleveland promptly 
refused to sign the bill, but it soon was made law over his veto. The 
influence of the "Trusts" had defeated all attempts to break down 
protective tariff. The tariff measure carried with it a provision for 
an income tax, which, however, was later declared unconstitutional by 
the Supreme Court. 

4. The Pullman Strike in Chicago. 

A. cut in the wages of the Pullman Car Company's employees was 
followed by a strike. The American Railway Union, of which the 
Pullman employees were members, now forbade its men to handle 
Pullman cars on the railroads. The strike grew in violence. Terrible 
rioting and destruction of property occurred at Chicago, and the 
United States mail ceased to move, and in many instances was de- 
stroyed when strikers burned railroad property. The Illinois officials 
were doing little to break up the disorder, so President Cleveland or- 
dered federal troops to the scene. These soon had the situation in hand, 
but Cleveland was bitterly censured for his action by many, particu- 
larly the Populist element in the West and the labor adherents. 

5. The Venezuela Affair. 

Great Britain and Venezuela were engaged in dispute over the 
boundaries of British Guiana and Venezuela. Preparations were made 
to send British troops to South America to occupy the region in ques- 
tion. Cleveland through Secretary of State Olney called the atten- 
tion of the English government to the fact that this action would be 
in violation of the Monroe Doctrine, and insisted that the difficulty be 
settled by arbitration. Great Britain refused, whereupon Cleveland 
sent what practically amounted to an ultimatum. The people of Eng- 
land awoke to the seriousness of the situation and war was averted 
by the prime minister's reluctantly consenting to submit the British 
claims to arbitration. Months later an arbitration court convened in 
Paris and gave a verdict sustaining Great Britain in her boundary 
claims, on the ground that fifty years' actual possession of a district 
constitutes a national title. 

6. Campaign and Election of 1896. 

As the presidential election of 1896 approached it became evident 
that the question of the free coinage of silver would become upper- 
most. The Republicans began to drift toward the gold standard, while 
the Democrats took the opposite course. The Republican convention 

135 



met in St. Louis and chose as a candidate William McKinley of Ohio, 
on a platform advocating gold standard, protective tariff, reciprocity, 
a Niearagnan canal under American ownership, annexation of Hawaii, 
and the purchase of the Danish West Indies. 

The Democrtic convention was held in Chicago. Free coinage of 
silver at a ratio of 16 to 1, was made| the chief plank in the party's 
platform. William Jennings Bryan of Nehraska was nominated for 
the presidency. The Populist party indorsed Bryan and cast its votes 
for him at the election. Wlien the returns came in after November 3, 
it was found that the Republicans had won a comparatively easy vic- 
tory. McKinley carried all of the most important eastern and north- 
em states, receiving 271 electoral votes to Bryan's 176. 

WILLIAM McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION. 
1897-1901 

1. Dinglcy Tariff Act. 

Although the tariff had played little part in the election of 1896, 
President McKinley called an extra session of Congress early in 1897 
in order that tariff measures might be enacted. Congress at this ses- 
sion, passed the Dingley Tariff, which restored, and even raised some- 
what, the scale of duties provided by the McKinley Tariff, passed dur- 
ing Harrison's administration. 

THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR (1898). 
1. Causes. 

After the termination of the Cuban insurrection in 1878, Cuba 
quickly recovered prosperity until the island had an export trade of a 
hundred million dollars a year, most of it with the Ignited States. The 
Spanish, however, considered the native Cubans inferiors, taxes were 
high, and the island was, as far as possible, in its trade under the con- 
trol of the Spanish merchants. Another insurrection broke out in 
1895, aided by the Junta, a body of wealthy Cubans in the United 
States, which sent many filibustering expeditions, with arms, supplies, 
and men for the insurgents. In attempting to put down the revolt, 
the Spanish government exercised the utmost cruelty. "Reconcen- 
trado" camps were established into which were crowded the families 
of the revolutionists and other non-combatants. These unfortunates 
were allowed to die of disease and starvation by the thousands. The 
United States sent a commission to investigate conditions in Cuba, and 
its report portrayed a situation even worse than had been expected. 
Hundreds of Americans in Cuba were in jeopardy and millions of 
dollars' worth of American property was being destroyed. Strained 

136 



relations between the United States and Spain developed rapidly. In 
February, 1898, the U. S. S. Maine, while in Cuban waters to protect 
American interests, was blown up in Havana harbor, with the loss of 
266 of her crew. An investigation did not bring out the exact cause 
of the disaster, but there was a widespread feeling in the United States 
that the Spanish government was responsible. Uncontrollable war 
spirit swept the country and led to Congress's authorizing the Presi- 
dent to use the army and navy of the United States to force Spain to 
relinquish all control of Cuba. The United States went to war April 
19, 1898, having pledged itself by the Teller Resolution, to leave the 
government and control of the island of Cuba to its own people once 
it should have been wrested from Spanish control. The sinking of the 
Maine only precipitated the conflict ; the real cause of the war was 
Spain's years of misgovernment and cruelty in administering affairs 
in Cuba. 

2. Progress op the War. 

(a) War in the Philippines. — At the outbreak of the war Com- 
modore Dewey with a fleet of United States warships was at Hong- 
kong, China. He sailed immediately to engage the Spanish fleet in the 
Philippines. On May 1, 1898, Dewey won the famous battle of Manila 
Bay, having completely destroyed, without the loss of a single man, the 
Spanish fleet under Admiral Montejo. 

Dewey now anchored his fleet off the city of Manila, where he 
was joined a few weeks later by a transport fleet bearing a small 
American army under General Wesley Merritt. Aided by the forces 
of the native chieftain, Aguinaldo, the Americans captured IManila in 
August. Thus the Philippines, Spain's most valuable insular posses- 
sion in the East fell into the hands of the United States. 

(&) Naval and Militia Campaigns in the West Indies.. — Mean- 
while, the United States was waging a military and naval war against 
the Spaniards in Cuba. Unlike the Navy Department, the War De- 
partment at the beginning of hostilities was in a deplorable state of 
unreadiness to conduct the war. Organized to care for our very small 
standing army of peace times, it possessed wholly inadequate facilities 
for provisioning, clothing, arming and training the large volunteer 
force that responded to the President's call. As a result mobilization 
was accomplished only after many delays, blunders and mishaps. 
Tampa, Florida, was made a concentration point for men and supplies 
destined for Cuba. At length 16,000 troops were embarked, on im- 
provised transports, for the vicinity of Santiago, which was held by 
a strong Spanish force. For some weeks past, a fleet under Admiral 
Sampson, had been blockading the Cuban coast, and had bottled up in 

137 



the harbor of Santiago, a small Spanish fleet under Admiral Cervera, 

The force of 16,000 troops under General Shafter was lauded on 
the Cuban coast about fifteen miles from Santiago, and at once began 
its march through a rugged and densely wooded country toward that 
city. The enemy was first encountered at Las Guasimas, where an 
American force of a thousand men drove out a Spanish force far 
superior in point of numbers. The troops now moved on to El Caney, 
a fortified town near Santiago. After a short siege, the works were 
finally carried by storm, and a number of prisoners taken. On the 
same day, July 2, a small force of regidars, together with the "Rough 
Riders," led by Colonel Roosevelt, made a brilliant charge resulting 
in the capture of San Juan. 

Santiago was now menaced by the American forces, so Ailiuiral 
Cervera determined to make a bold dash for liberty vs^ith the Spanish 
fleet, hoping to ])e able to elude the American blockading squadrons. 
On July .'3, the Spanish fleet slipped past the sunken collier Merrimac, 
with which the Americans had attempted to block the narrow entrance 
to the harbor, and sped down the coast pursued by the entire Ameri- 
can fleet under its acting head. Commodore Schley. In a wild run- 
ning fight lasting but a few hours the entire enemy fleet was destroyed. 
Nearly 600 Spaniards were killed, and 1,400 were captured. The 
American loss was one man killed and one wounded. 

A few days after this naval battle, General Toral surrendered 
Santiago to General Shafter. Practically the whole of Cuba now fell 
under American control. General Nelson Miles had already seized 
Porto Rico, meeting with very little resistance on the part of the 
Spaniards. All operations were now brought to an end by the signing 
of a protocol of peace, on August 12. This armistice was called to 
await the outcome of peace negotiations asked for by Spain. Due to 
unhealthful conditions in Cuba and to the lack of proper food and 
medical attention, American soldiers were dying ])y thousands. Over 
ninety per cent of our losses in the war came through disease rather 
than from Spani.sh bullets. A petition signed by many of the officers 
in Cuba was followed by the withdrawal of most of the American 
troops. These were sent to Long Island, that they might recuperate 
from the effects of the short campaign. 

3. Rrsidts of the Spani-sh Amrrivun War. — Measured by results 
the war was one fo the momst imjiortant of modern times. By the 
Treaty of Paris, ratified early in 1899, Spain relinquished all hold on 
Cuba, ceded outright Porto Rico and Guam to the United States, and 
for a consideration of $20,000,000 ceded the entire Philippine archi- 
pelago to this countr}^ 

138 



The war marked the end of Spanish rule in the Western Hemis- 
phere and left Spain no longer a first-class power in Europe. The 
United States secured valuable colonies and of necessity committed 
herself to a policy of expansion, and rose in the estimation of world 
powers. Possession of the Philippines opened wonderful opportuni- 
ties for development of American trade in Asia, and required perma- 
nent maintenance of a strong naval organization. 

Other Important Events. 

1. Annexation of Hawaii. — By a joint resolution of Congress, 
Jul}^, 1898, the Hawaian Islands were annexed to the United States, 
and in 1900 were organized as a territory. The acquisition of these 
islands was partly a war measure. Their favorable location in mid- 
Pacific (The "Cross Roads of the Pacific) made them ideal as a naval 
base. 

2. Piatt Amendment. — Having wrested Cuba from Spain, the 
United States had no intention of assuming permanent possession of 
the island. Upon the re-establishment of stable political conditions the 
United States was to relinquish direct control, but Cuba was to be 
given independence under certain reservations. Most of these were 
embodied in the "Piatt Amendment" attached in 1900 to an army 
appropriation bill, and were as follows : Cuba was to make no treaties 
with foreign powers contrary to the interests of the United States ; she 
must not incur any debts greater than could be paid from the revenues 
of the country ; sites for naval bases were to be ceded to the United 
States; that the United States reserved the right to intervene in the 
event of political disorders ; that sanitary precautions be taken in all 
Cuban ports, etc. 

In 1901, after a constitution approved by the United States had 
been adopted, a republican form of government was set up with Gen- 
eral Palma as the first president. For ten years, however, United 
States forces were maintained on the island. During this period Cuba 
benefited greatly, in wise legislation, commercial and industrial growth, 
in educational development, and in the safeguarding of the public 
health. 

3. Insurrection in the Philippines. — -No sooner had it become plain 
to the Filipinos that Spain's loss of the islands would not mean inde- 
pendence for the natives,- than an insurrection broke out against 
American rule. When it was found that the insurgents could not 
make a successful stand against American troops, as evidenced by sev- 
eral severe defeats, the natives discarded uniforms and began a des- 
perate guerilla warfare, under the leadership of Aguinaldo. Handi- 
capped in almost every respect, the small American force in the islands 

139 



struggled for months to restore and maintain a semblance of order. 
At length a bold stroke on the part of General Funston resulted in the 
capture of Aguinaldo, after which the revolt rapidly subsided. For 
nearly twenty years the United States has been engaged in improving 
conditions in the Islands, until today the Philippines have become a 
worthy model of what wise and just administration may do for a peo- 
ple. 

4. Boxer RchcUion. — In 1900 an element of the Chinese, known as 
"Boxers," resenting the growth of foreign influence in China, gained 
control of the northeastern region about Peking, and at once began a 
murderous attack on all foreigners and against all things Western. 
AVith the secret sympathy and aid of the Chinese government, the 
movement spread, resulting in the murder of a number of missionaries, 
the German minister, and others. The foreign diplomats and their 
families sought refuge in the British legation, where for several weeks 
they were besieged by thousands of Boxers, who had now gained com- 
plete control of Peking. 

In concert with British, French, German, Italian, and Japanese 
troops. United States forces aided in tlie relief of the foreigners. In 
a combined attack on Peking the allied foi-ces captured the city and 
soon restored order. 

The dismemberment of China would probably have followed the 
Boxer affair had not the United States exerted its influence in favor 
of a different punishment for the Chinese government. Secretary of 
State John Hay had much to do with our "Open Door Policy" in 
China being accepted by the various European powers. For failure to 
put down the Boxer uprising the Chinese government was forced to 
pay a heavy indemnity. 

5. The Election of 7^00.— Tlie presidential election of 1900 was 
similar in many respects to that in 1896. The same candidates, Mc- 
Kinley and Bryan, were before the people. The platforms of Demo- 
cratic and Republican parties were little different from those in 1896, 
except for the fact that the Democmrats declared against foreign ex- 
pansion, particularly in the matter of holding the Philippines. This 
question of imperialism or anti-imperialism r<Mnained a paramount is- 
.sue for several years. McKinley's personal popularity, together Avith 
the fact that free silver had been made somewhat a dead issue by the 
great Klondike and Alaskan gold strikes, brought about a second de- 
feat for Brvan. 



140 



THEODORE ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATIONS. * 

1901-1909. 

1. Assassination of McKinley. — President MeKinley had been in 
ofifiee but a few months of his second term when he was assassinated at 
Buffalo, while holding a public reception at the Pan-American Expo- 
sition held in that city. His vice-president, Theodore Roosevelt, at 
once took the oath of office, and continued, for the most part, to carry 
out his predecessor's policies. In addition, however, in his first mes- 
sage to Congress, Roosevelt advocated a number of radical reforms. 
We shall take up separately those in which he succeeded in o])taining 
constructive legislation. ' 

2. Anthracite Coal Strike. — In 1902 a great strike in the anthra- 
cite coal region of Pennsylvania lu'ought about a serious fuel famine, 
particularly in the East. Roosevelt established a precedent l)y forcing 
upon the miners and the coal operators his services as a mediator. The 
strike was settled in short order on a basis of justice for both parties. 

3. Prosecution of the Trusts. — After the Spanish-American War, 
"the period of industrial prosperity brought with it a great increase in 
the number of corporations or trusts. Some of these had become so 
poM'erful and arrogant that they were defying the laws of not only the 
states, but also of the United States. Roosevelt, through liis attorney- 
general, started nearly forty suits against them, under the Sherman 
Anti-trust Law, with the effect that some of the most objectionable 
practices of these powerful monopolies were stopped. Under Roose- 
velt organized labor made great strides in securing its rights, with 
comparatively little disorder. The President favored labor unions 
when they conducted their strikes properly, but lawlessness of all kinds 
he considered intolerable. 

4. Conservation. — Roosevelt, in accordance with his policy of con- 
servation of national resources, secured from Congress authorization to 
set apart as national domain several hundred thousand acres of forest 
and mineral lands. This prevented the sale to private companies of 
valuable coal lands in Alaska and elsewhere, and also protected a num- 
ber of forested areas at the headwaters of some of our large rivers. 

5. Reclamation. — A reclamation act was passed in 1902, which pro- 
vided for the irrigation of thousands of acres of arid land in our South- 
west. Great dams were to be built in the mountains at national ex- 
pense and the water was to be sold to settlers in the dry regions. The 
building of the Roosevelt dam in Arizona is a typical instance of this 
work. 

6. Panama Canal. — Under Roosevelt the Panama Canal project 
was at last put through. The old Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850, 

141 



which would have prevented the United States from exercising a free 
hand in the construction of the waterway, was abrogated by the Hay- 
Pauncefote Treaty of 1902, by which this government secured sole 
rights to build and control the canal. Great Britain, however, stipulat- 
ed that there must be no discrimination with regard to the use of the 
canal by foreign shipping. The French rights in Panama, where years 
before an unsuccessful attempt had been made to build a canal, were 
bought for .^40, 000, 000, and a treaty, known as the Hay-IIerran Treaty 
was arranged with Colombia, through whose territory the canal was to 
be built. The Colombian senate, however, refused to ratify this and 
held out for an exorbitant price for a canal zone. Panama, the north- 
ern province of Colombia, now rose in revolt and had its independence 
immediately recognized by the United States. We now negotiated 
direct with Panama for a canal zone, and by what is known as the 
Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty secured perpetual lease to a strip of terri- 
tory ten miles wide and about fifty miles long. 

It was determined to build a lock canal in preference to one at 
sea-level. Work actually began in lOO-l, and continued under Presi- 
dents Roosevelt, Taft and Wilson. The canal was formally opened 
in 1915, but for some months its usefulness was impaired by a succes- 
sion of destructive slides that blocked the waterway, and whicli liad to 
be removed at the expense of nuich time and labor. 

As an engineering feat, tlie biiiUling of the Panama Canal stands 
as one of the world's greatest achievemoits. To Colonel Goethals. of 
the United States Army, and his corps of efficient assistants is due 
much of tlie credit for overcoming the many natural obstacles and 
difficulties in the way of success. Profiting by tlie disastrous attempt 
on the part of the French, the T'nited States. ]\v improved methods of 
sanitation on the isthnuis. practically eliminated the dread yellow 
fever which otherwise would have claimed thousands of American 
victims. The Canal Zone today, instead of being one of the most un- 
healthful spots on the globe, has a death r;i1e little higher than New 
Orleans and other American cities. 

While the greatest value of the Pannma Canal will accrue to the 
United States, world traffic as a whole will l)e greatly benefited. The 
route from New York to San Francisco has been cut to hardly more 
than a third of its former distance. From a naval standpoint the 
Canal is of inestimable value to the United States, since our fleets can 
readily be concentrated in either the Atlantic or the Pacific at a few 
hour's notice. 



142 



7. Improvements in Consular Service. — Prior to the Spanish- 
American War many of our consuls abroad, to whom were entrusted 
our foreign commercial relations, were wholly unfitted for their posi- 
tions and did little or nothing to maintain or l)uild up American trade. 
Hence it was imperative that, having committed itself to a policy of 
territorial expansion abroad, the government must remedy the defects 
in the consular service if it hoped to compete successfully for trade 
in the Asiatic and other markets. Under Roosevelt a weeding-out pro- 
cess took place, and competitive examinations furnished a higher class 
of men for commercial service abroad. 

8. Bureau of American Republics. — A widespread recognition of 
a need for closer and more cordial relations between the United States 
and the Latin- American republics to the south led to the organization 
at Washington of the Bureau of American Republics. Our presence 
at Panama and our efforts toward trade expansion were important 
fcators in briging about a closer relationship with these sister repub- 
lics. 

9. Extension of the Monroe Doctrine.— RooseyeM extended the in- 
terpretation of the Monroe Doctrine and established a precedent when, 
in order to satisfy European creditors of Santo Domingo, he appoint- 
ed a receiver to manage its bankrupt treasury with a view to restoring 
the country to a firm financial basis after its obligation had been met. 
The United States has since followed this policy of assuming the re- 
sponsibility for the collection of debts owed by the weaker American 
republics. 

10. The Election of 1904.— In the election of 1904 Roosevelt was 
elected, defeating the Democratic candidate, Alton B. Parker, and car- 
rying every state noth of the Mason and Dixon line, and even invading 
the "Solid South." 

11. Hepburn Rate Bill. — The Hepburn Rate Bill was passed en- 
larging the powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission in order to 
give that body greater control over the railroads, which were establish- 
ing excessive and unfair rates to shippers in various parts of the coun- 
try. By the new act the Interstate Commerce Commission w^as em- 
powered to fix rates for roads engaged in interstate business. 

12. Pure Food and Drug Acts. — An investigation of the meat 
packing houses of the middle West was followed by the establishment 
of a rigid system of government inspection of meats and otber prod- 
ucts. At the same time the people were further protected by the 
passage of pure food and drug acts. 

13. Treaty of Portsmouth. — In 1905 the Russo-Japanese War was 
brought to an end largely through the efforts of Roosevelt. Commis- 

143 



sioners from Japan and Russia met at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, 
and there drew up a treaty. The Treaty of Portsmouth marked a 
notable diplomatic achievement of the United States, and was an evi- 
dence of the respect in which this nation is held abroad. P"'or his work 
in bringing about the conference the President was awarded the 
famous Nobel Peace Prize. 

14. Trip of the Fleet Around the Wor/r/.— Roosevelt was always a 
"big navy" man and during liis term secured legislation that l)rought 
our navy to a high point of efficiency. A sixteen battleship fleet was 
sent around the world (1907-1909), the first instance of the kind. 
Friendly visits were paid to almost every important foreign port. The 
fleet was in the IMediterranean at the time of the IMessina disaster fol- 
lowing the violent eruption of Vesuvius, and extended valua))le aid in 
caring for the homeless survivors. 

15. Eleetion of 1908. — So popular with all classes was Roosevelt 
at the end of his administration that he was ena])le(l practically to make 
Secretary of War William H. Taft his successor. Witli tlie Presi- 
dent's suport Taft easily won over William Jennings Bryan, who for 
the third time was the Democratic nominee. Immediately after the 
election Roosevelt started on an extended hunting trip to Africa in 
the interests of the Smithsonian Institute at Washington. 

WILLIAM H. TAFT'S A DIM IN I STRATI ON. 
1909-1918. 

As President, Taft held to many of the policies of his predecessor, 
particularly as to the regulation of corporations and transportation 
lines, conservation, and reform in administrative methods. In many 
states, during the decade preceding his term, radical changes were 
made in state constitutions and laws in order to give the j)cople more 
direct control of the governments, state and national. Among these 
innovations were direct primarieff, initiative, referendum and recall, 
features of which were adopted by many states. The woman suffrage 
movement grew steadily as did the proliibition movement for abolish- 
ing the manufacture and sale of alcoholic liquors. 

1. J'ajjne-AJdrich Tanff.— The Republicans in their 1908 plat- 
form had pledged themselves to downward revision of the tariff. The 
steady rise in the prices of necessities such as food, clothing, etc., had 
begun to arouse popular discontent. The Repul)lican party had prom- 
ised to alleviate these conditions by tariff changes. Congress met in 
speeial session in March, 1909, and after months of discussion finally 
passed the Payne-Aldrich Tariff' Bill, whieh slightly reduced some 
<duties and increased others. A corporation tax of one per cent was 

144 



laid on the net earnings of companies having a profit above $5,000 a 
year. On the whole, however, the Payne-Aldrich tariff marked an up- 
ward revision of the tariff rather than a downward revision. 

2. The Progressive Movetnent. — At this time there was rapidly 
developing within the Republican party a spirit of dissension that, 
before the end of Taft's administration, resulted in an open break 
between two great elements in the party. It soon became clear that 
the Payne-Aldrich Act was a disappointment to the country at large. 
The sponsors for the act were the old line or ' ' stand-pat ' ' Republicans. 
A reform branch of the party called themselves "Progressives," and 
were known as "Insurgents" by their enemies in the more conserva- 
tive branch of the party. The "Progressives" included in their ranks 
those Republicans who were advocates of a lower tariff, those who be- 
lieved that Speaker Cannon exercised a despotic and unjust control 
of the House, and a group of radical Westerners who were pioneers in 
introducing political reforms in their own states. Although the Pro- 
gressives and the Stand-patters agreed in principle in many instances, 
fierce quarrels arose over details, particularly in the matter of conser- 
vation. 

3. Revolt Against Speaker Cannon. — In 1910 the Republican In- 
surgents in cooperation with the Democratic members succeeded in 
overthrowing the power of Speaker Cannon in the House of Represen- 
tatives. The rules of the House were so amended that Cannon was 
forced off the Committee on Rules. Thus he was stripped of much of 
his former power because the Rules Committee arranges the entire 
calendar of the House and can keep any bill from coming up to a 
vote which does not meet the approval of the committee. The Rules 
Committee was now enlarged to fifteen members and elected by the 
House. Widespread disatisfaction with the Taft administration is 
clearly evidenced by the Congressional election of 1910, which gave 
the Democrats an overwhelming majority in the House. 

4. Reciprocity. — The President hoped to make reciprocity with 
Canada one of the features of his administration. Canadian goods 
were to be admitted to the United States duty free and in return 
United States products were to be permitted free access to Canada. 
A treaty was at length drawn up and ratified by the United States, but 
was decisively rejected by Canada in 1911. 

5. New Mexico and Arizona. — In 1910 Congress gave to the ter- 
ritories of New Mexico and Arizona permission to submit state consti- 
tutions. In 1912 these states were admitted to the Union, making the 
total number of states forty-eight. 

145 



6. Parcel Porf.-Taf t s administration marked a notable improve- 
>ent „, mad service. Chiefiy tl,rough the efforts of CongressnTn 
Davul Lewis of Maryland a pareel post was estaUished. Tl s did 

Zpal^ies"' """*'' '™'" ""' """""""''' "^^"''^^<' "^ "^^ -^P-- 

displLfd'wi?!^ »/ ^p.-RoosevoIt l,ad returned from abroad much 
d spieased wi ii Taft s management of the affairs of the country. In 

him fn tle'st r"r'"'?'"'"-. '^'^'^ ^"*'-^^« '"'» ^""i^d about 
term Thi led rf.' O^*""™"' ♦» ^"PPort Taft for a second 

term. This led to a hitter contest between the two factions. The Re- 
publican convention met in Chicago and after refusing to seat a num- 

the part.v. The Roosevelt faction immediately bolted the convention 
called a convention of their own and under the name of the "Progres: 
sive Part.v nominated Roosevelt, on a platform for radical political 
and social reforms. ' ■■mai 

The Democratic party was quick to .see its opportunity in the split 
in the Repubhean party. At its convention in Baltiuiore in June the 

roM A\ Ison of New Jersey. After over forty l^allots had been taken 
without a choice, the weight of Bryan's tremendous influence in the 
West threw the nomination to Wilson. 

The fact that three candidates were in the field resulted in the 
election of Wilson, although he received fewer votes than were cast for 
the two Republican candidates. Moreover, the Democrats had secured 
a majority in ])oth Houses of Congress. 

WOODROW WILSON'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION. 
1913-1917. 

/' F^'^'V^'^ ^'^""^ beginning of his term Wilson went about the 
conduct of affairs in the country in a manner that left little doubt as 
to his powers of leadership. His comprehensive grasp of the problems 
confronting him and his superb control of Congress resulted in much 
constructive legislation of lasting benefit to the nation. His first Cabi- 
net was co.nprised of several men of exceptional ability. It was as 
follows: Secretary of State, William J. Brvan ; Secretarv of Treas- 
ury, Wilham J. McAdoo; Secretary of War. Garrison; Attorney-Gen- 
eral, McReynolds; Postmaster-General, Burleson; Secretary of' Navy 
Daniels; Secretary of Interior, Lane; Secretary of Agriculture Hous- 
ton ; Secretary of Commerce, Redfield ; and Secretarv of Labor.' W. B. 
Wilson. 

146 



Secretaries Bryan, Garrison, McAdoo and Attorney-General Me- 
Reynolds were later succeeded by Lansing, Baker, Glass and Gregory, 
respectively. Gregory recently was superseded by Palmer. 

2. The Underwood Tariff. — Soon after his inauguration Presi- 
dent Wilson called an extra session of Congress to obtain needed tariff 
legislation. A few months later the Underwood Tariff Bill became 
law. By it the duties were reduced from about 40 per cent as fixed by 
the Payne-Aldrich Act to 26 per cent average. The reduction was 
designed to lower the high cost of living, since most of the commodi- 
ties placed on the free list or greatly reduced were necessities, such as 
food, farm implements, lumber, wool, sugar, cotton, cattle, etc. At 
the same time an income tax was laid to make up the loss in revenue. 
However, before it could be shown whether or not the Underwood 
Tariff would really have any effect in lessening the high cost of living 
the great European War broke out, making abnormal industrial and 
economic conditions in this country. 

3. Federal Reserve Act. — The difficulty of securing credit for 
legitimate business enterprises and the monopilizing of much of the 
capital of the country by a so-called money trust pointed to the need 
of an ampler and more flexible currency to meet business needs. Ac- 
cording to the financiers of the country this condition was due more to 
our old fashioned and outgrown banking system rather than to Wall 
Street manipulation. With a view to remedying these currency defects, 
Congress, in 1913, passed the Federal Reserve Act, or Glass-Owen Act, 
which divided the United States into twelve federal districts in each 
of which is established a federal reserve bank. Six per cent of the 
capital of the national banks in each district is used as the capital for 
the federal reserve bank in that district. A federal reserve board at 
the head of which is the Secretary of the Treasury controls the reserve 
banks and fixes rules for the administration of the thousands of na- 
tional banks in the country. 

4. Sixteenth and Seventeenth Amendments. — The Sixteenth 
Amendment, providing for a tax on incomes, was adopted early in 
1913, just before Wilson's inauguration. The Seventeenth Amend- 
ment, adopted a little later, provides for the direct election of senators 
by the people rather than by state legislatures, as was formerly the 
practice. 

5. Repeal of Free Toll Act. — During Taft's administration an act 
exempting American coastwise shipping from the payment of toll for 
use of the Panama Canal was passed. This act was manifestly in vio- 
lation of the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty with Great Britain, which pro- 
vided that there should be no discrimination in favor of the shipping 

147 



of any nation. Consequently, Congress, early in 1914, repealed the 
Free Tolls Aet at the request of the President. 

6. United States Intervention in Mexico. — For many months 
Mexico had been torn by internal disorders due to revolutionary move- 
ments, with their attendant destruction of American property and 
menace to the lives of our citizens in that country. Affairs moved 
rapidly to a crisis when in February, 1913, the murder of President 
Madero precipitated pitched battles in the streets of the Mexican capi- 
tal. An insurgent nanied Iluerta gained the upper hand and pro- 
claimed himself President. President Wilson, who had been main- 
taining a policy of "watchful waiting," refused recognition to the 
Iluerta government. Conditions steadily grew worse in ^Mexico, and 
foreign nations importuned the United States to take decisive steps 
to resore order. In April, 1914, Iluerta ordered the seizure of a 
party of American sailors who had landed at Tampico to secure sup- 
plies. Immediately following this incident a powerful fleet was ordered 
to Tampico, and the President received authorization from Congress 
to use force in upholding the dignity of the United States, and in pro- 
tecting the interests of our citizens. Admiral Fletcher was at once or- 
dered to occupy Vera Cruz, A detachment of marines was landed and 
gained control of the city after losing seventeen men. During the 
•summer of 1914 American forces remained at Vera Cruz, until in 
July, Huerta fled from the country in the face of the growing power 
of his rival Carranza. Wilson then withdrew our forces from the city. 

In 1915 Carranza found himst^lf master of the southern half of 
Mexico including the capital. The northern provinces were, however, 
stil in the grip of a bandit chieftain named Villa. Angered because 
the United States liad maintained friendly relations with Carranza, 
Villa, in March, 1916, raided across our border, and at Columlnis, 
New Mexico, killed nearly a score of soldiers and civilians, and wound- 
ed many others. Additional troops were at once ordered to the border, 
and a punitive expedition was quickly organized under command of 
General John Pershing. With Carranza's permission, Pershing's 
force entered Mexico and hotly pursued Villa for 150 miles into the 
interior. After a few skirmishes with the brigand and his men, the 
Americans were forced to retire north of tlie border without having 
achieved their purpose of caj)turing him. Situations arising from 
the European War now absorbed the attention of the Administration 
to the exclusion of Mexican affairs. 

7. Some effects of the European War. — Wlien war first ])roke out 
in Europe in the summer of 1914, the people of the United States had 
no other thought than that of maintaining the strictest neutrality as 

148 



regarded the struggle across the water. From the very beginning of 
the conflict, however, Germany's manner of conducting her activities 
on land and sea was such that no fair minded people could long re- 
main neutral in thought or action. With the German government 
alone rests the responsibility of awakening in the United States the 
spirit of intense antagonism for all things German, that at last led the 
United States to take up the sword in the interest of humanity. The 
ruthless invasion of Belgium with its attendant massacre of non-com- 
batants was viewed with horror by the majority of American citizens. 
Germany's avowed purpose of engaging in a submarine blockade of 
the British Isles was regarded with grave apprehension in this coun- 
try, since it was evident that such a course would seriously menace 
neutral lives and property. President Wilson in a note to the Imperial 
government voiced a warning to the effect that Germany would be 
held to strict accountability for all American lives or property de- 
stroyed. Despite this warning, sinkings of United States merchant 
ships were almost weekly occurrences. The crowning horror of the 
submarine campaign, however, occurred in May, 1915, when the 
Cunard liner, Lusitania, was sunk by a German submarine with the 
loss of over a thousand lives, including 114 Americans. There were 
many Americans who believed that the Lusitania affair furnished a 
good and sufficient cause for our declaration of war on Germany, but 
President Wilson was determined that nothing should be left undone 
in an effort to prevent the United States from being drawn into the 
struggle. For over a year our government contented itself witli the 
sending of notes to Germany, most of which met with evasive or de- 
ceptive answers. 

In the meantime German and Austrian agents were busy in the 
United States. Propagandists were at work everywhere trying to 
poison the minds of American citizens against the Allies, particularly 
England. An epidemic of strikes, destructive fires of incendiary 
source, and bomb plots, were of German origin and designed to ter- 
rorize American industry and commerce. German-Americans, who 
were oftimes in the pay of the Fatherland, were largely responsible 
for these outrages. In the fall of 1915 it was found that many of the 
strikes in munition plants had been planned and supervised by the 
Austrian Ambassador, Dr. Dumba, and his recall was at once 
demanded. At the same time investigation showed that an army of 
German spies in this country was being directed by Captain Boy-Ed, 
German naval aattache, and Captain Von Papen, a military attache. 
These men were also sent out of the country. 

8. The Election of 1916. — The presidential campaign of 1916 
came at a time when the United States w?s momentarily in danger of 

149 



being drawn into the European conflict, which was still ragring with 
uiiabated fury. At such a critical time it was extremely important 
that the American people exercise their best judgment in the choice 
of a leader. The Democratic Convention, which met in the summer 
of 1916, expressed its confidence in the President by supporting liim 
for a second term. The Republican party, in its convcHtion at 
•Chicago, nominated Charles E. Hughes, a Supreme Court justice, on 
a platform of military "preparedness," firmness in our dealings with 
Mexico, and full American rights on the high seas. 

In one of the closest elections in our history. Wilson, despite his 
loss of most of the important Eastern and Middle Western states, won 
over Hughes by an electoral vote of 276 to 255. So close was the 
result that the issue wa.s actually in doubt for several days. On the 
night following the election many strong Democratic newspapers con- 
ceded a sweei)ing victory for tiie Repu])licans. At length, however, 
belated returns showed that Wilson had gained California and with it 
the election. 

PART PLAYED BY THE UNITED STATES IN 
THE GREAT WAR. 

1. Srvrraucc of Diplomatic Relations with Gtrnunnj. — Early in 
1917 Germany declared her intention of resuming unrestricted sub- 
marine warfare. This declaration was a clear breach of the pledges 
given the United States following the sinking of the liner Sussex in 
the summer of 1916. Furthermore, it was found that Count Von 
Bernstorrt', German Ambassador to the United States, had used the 
protection accorded him as a diplomatic representative, as a cover for 
directing German activities of the worst kind in this country. A note 
signed by the German Foreign Secretary Zimmerman, came into the 
possession of the State Department, which sliowed conclusively that 
Germany had been plotting with Mexico, and had even offered Mexico 
a part of southwestern United States in the event of German success, 
Wilson hesitated no longer and early in Fel)ruary broke off diplomatic 
relations with Germany. Our ambassador was recalled from Berlin 
and Bernstorff was dismissed. 

2. Arminq of Merchant Ships. — On February 26 the President 
asked Congress for authority to arm American merchant ships. Con- 
gress was overwhelmingly in favor of this course, but a few Senators, 
whose motives were probably anything but patriotic, blocked the will 
of the majority by taking advantage of defects in the Senate niles. 
The President, however, after consulting with the Attorney-General, 

150 



proceeded with the arming of the ships. The first of these armed 
vessels to traverse the submarine zone was the liner St. Louis. 

3, Declaration of War. — The continued aggressions of the U-boats 
and the popular indignation over the Zimmerman note let the Presi- 
dent to take the final step. On April 2 lie appeared before Congress 
and asked that that body recognize the existence of a state of war 
between the United States and the German government, and that au- 
thority be given him to make use of the army and navy. April 6, 
1917, Congress made a virtual declaration of war against Germany. 

4. Preparations for Conducting the ^Var. — Prior to our going to 
war with Germany very little had actually been done toward the or- 
ganization of such a formidable military force as would be needed. 
The Navy was, however, ready for service immediately. In less than 
a month after the opening of hostilities our destroyer fleet was co- 
operating with Allied ships in the war zone. It was apparent to all 
that the volunteer system for securing men for the army was inade- 
quate. It was very wisely decided that a form of selective draft be 
put into operation, so in May the President signed the Selective Serv- 
ice Act, which called for registration nearly ten million Americans, 
between the ages of 21 and 31. Headed by General Crowder, a sys- 
tem of draft boards was organized throughout the country for the 
selecting of men for active service. Great training camps were estab- 
lished at various points and to these were sent the National Guards- 
men and thousands of men provided through the draft. These were 
given several months' intensive training before being sent overseas. 

Moreover, the industries of the country had to be reorganized and 
placed on a war footing. Vast quantities of munitions, arras of all 
kinds, clothing, motor trucks, and aeroplanes were needed, and had 
to be provided with the least possible delay. Fortunately, hundreds 
of munition plants were already in operation, many of them having 
been supplying Allied needs for months. These were at once taken 
over by the United States government. Plants manufacturing peace 
time commodities were in many instances turned over to the govern- 
ment for the manufacture of war supplies. Work was speeded up ^ii 
ship construction and scores of new yards were established, to which 
were attracted skilled workmen and laborers from all parts of the 
interior. Many of the shrewest and brainiest business men in the coun- 
try, each an expert in his own particular line, for the time being put 
aside their own interests, and served without pay in executive and 
advisory positions at Washington. Aeroplane manufacture was 
standardized, as was the manufacture of motor trucks. A form rf 
standardized ship, known as the fabricated ship, was d-^si-^ned. tlie 

151 



parts being turned out in orreat quantities at various plants in the 
interior of the country and then assembled at points on the coast. 
Great quantities of all kinds of war supplies were purchased by the 
government and stored at Atlantic coast ports, to be sent to Europe as 
fast as shipping could be diverted to government service. The trans- 
portation and communication lines of the country (railroads, tele- 
graphs, telephones, etc.) were commandeered by the government and 
administered by it in the interests of war time efficiency. Food Ad- 
ministrator Hoover and Fuel Administrator Garfield set about con- 
serving the country's supply of food and fuel. The public re- 
sponded cheerfully and did its best to observe wheatless days, meatless 
days, gasolineless Sundays, heatless days, etc. 

5. Prcliminarjj Worlx of the Armij in France. — IMajor-General 
Pershing was chosen to command the United States army to be sent to 
Europe. Early in the summer of 1917 Pershing, with a small force of 
regulars reached France and immediately began to prepare the way 
for the coming of the enormous force that had already begun training 
in the United States. Pershing's first step was the formation of an 
•efficient general staff, modeled on French lines. Due to the congested 
conditions in the ports of northern France, which were taxed to their 
utmost to provide facilities for the British, it was necessary that the 
Americans make use of the southwestern ports, from Brest to 
.Bordeaux. Miles of docks had to be built, immense supply depots had 
to be constructed both along the coast and at points central to the 
theatre of the war, and hundreds of miles of railroad laid down to 
supplement the wholly inadequate French system. Pershing and his 
-staff attacked these colossal tasks with such energy that the work was 
•soon well under way, despite tlie fact tliat mueli of the materials used 
had to be transported from the United States. By the end of 1917 
the United States had an army of about 300,000 men in France, con- 
sisting chiefly of Regulars, former National Guardsmen, and 
Marines. This force, however, was still in training back of tlie battle 
front or was brigaded with the French ami British in quiet sector.s, 
and hence had taken i)art in no general engagements with the enemy, 

6. War Loans. — Much of the money needed by the government to 
meet its enormous war expenditures was rai.sed by means of Liberty 
Loan campaigns in which government bonds were offered to the people. 
In all there were five such loans, the last of which was known a.s the 
Victory Loan. These government bonds bore interest at a rate as 
high as 4r-}y/f . JMoreover, the Ameriean public contributed generously 
toward the war activities of such organizations as the Y. M. C. A., 
Y. W. C. A., Knights of Columbus, Salvation Army, and Red Cross. 

152 



7. How the United States Solved its Shipping Problems. — "When 
the United States entered the war, there were in our harbors about 
ninety interned German vessels. Immediately upon the declaration 
of war these vessels were seized. Many of them were found to have 
been damaged by their crews to such an extent that their engines could 
not be used without extensive repairs. In a surprisingly short time, 
however, the ships were ready for sea. A number of German liners 
were converted into transports. Among these was the former German 
liner Imperator, rechristened the Leviathan, and capable of carrying 
on an single trip 10,000 troops. Furthermore, the United States se- 
cured considerable tonnage from South American nations and later 
from Great Britain and Holland. During the first year of our partici- 
pation in the war by far the greater part of this shipping was used 
for the transport of supplies and materials of all kinds, for the im- 
mediate use of our forces in France, and for an enormous reserve sup- 
ply such as would later be needed by the two or three million soldiers 
that the government expected eventually to send overseas. 

The submarine menace was an ever-present factor in the difficul- 
ties to be made in sending troops and supplies overseas. Prior to the 
summer of 1917 the U-boats had exacted terrible toll in lives, ships and 
materials. Consequently, the safeguarding of American transports 
and merchant vessels was a task of prime importance, and was very 
wisely entrusted to the Navy. By means of the convoy system fleets 
consisting of a score or more of vessels were passed safely through the 
danger zone. Destroyers, ever vigilant, spend here and there among 
the slow moving craft, ready to open fire or drop a depth charge wher- 
ever a periscope might appear. 

8. American Troops in Action. — Late in March, 1918, the much 
heralded German offensive began. For months the enemy had been 
concentrating men and supplies for this super-attack, intended to 
break down the weakened French and British armies, to quickly bring 
about the fall of Paris, and thus end the war in Germany's favor, 
American supply movement overseas had now given way to a great 
extent to troop movement, at the urgent appeals of the British and 
French for men. American troops were pouring into France at the 
rate of thousands each week. General Pershing immediately placed 
his entire force, numbering at that time about 350,000 men at the dis- 
posal of the supreme commander, Marshal Foch. Fresh American 
troops were soon to be arriving in France at the rate of 300,000 per 
month. 

"Week after week the Germans pressed on, slowly shortening their 
distance to Paris in spite of the desperate resistance of the British 

153 



French. At last, late in May, the Americans were thrown into the 
thickest of the fig-hting. At Cantiprny, on May 28, troops of the First 
Di\'ision successfully carried tliroup:h their first engrajjement. A few 
days later (June 4) the Second Division of Refrulars and Marines 
went into the line on the Mame, at a point where any further Allied 
retreat would have meant the loss of Paris. On June 15 this division 
stopped the advance of the enemy, and in an impetuous charjre drove 
them back several hundred yards. This fight at Belleau "Wood was the 
first serious setback that the Hun had encountered, and the stopping 
of his advance relieved Paris from immediate danger. 

On July 15 the enemj^ resumed the attack from Chateau Thierry 
eastward to the Argonne. Six American divisions were thrown into 
line at Chateau Thierry, and three days later the great German drive 
was over. General Foch now launched his offensive, and from this 
time on the story is one of Allied attack and German retreat. 

9. Batih of St. Mihiel. — On September 12, the First American 
Army, under the personal direction of General Pershing, launched its 
initial independent offensive. The German salient at St. Mihiel had 
for many months projected far into the Allied line in spite of several 
attempts to flatten it. Within twenty-four hours after Pershing began 
his attack this heavily fortified salient had been wiped out, eastern 
France was free from menace, and German pressure on Verdun had 
been relieved. Meanwhile several smaller American forces had been 
giving great aid in their operations with the British. 

10. The Meuse- Argonne Offensive. — From the viewpoint of mili- 
tary strategy, America's greatest contribution to the successful out- 
come of the war was the fiercely contested battle of the Meuse. On 
September 26 General Pershing drove in west of the Meuse with the 
First American Army in an effort to cut the main artery of the Ger- 
man supply system, the most important feature of which was the 
Sedan-^Iezieres railway. In the first few days of the fighting consid- 
erable gains on the part of the Americans led tlie Germans to throw 
in division after division of fresh troops in an effort to stem the 
advance. In the ensuing weeks occurred the bitterest fighting in which 
American forces took part. There were now about tliirty divisions 
of Pershing's force in the line, and on November 1 our troops broke 
through. Greater gains were now made each day until, on November 
7, our forces were in the outskirts of Sedan, and were joined by the 
Fi*ench who had come in on Pershing's left flank. The German main 
supply line was now definitely cut and a decisive and humiliating 
defeat had been forced upon the enemy. Nothing but surrender or 
armistice could now save the Germans from complete disaster. 

154 



Preparation were immediately made by General Pershing for an 
advance between the Meuse and the Moselle, with the view to isolating 
Metz, and attacks were already in progress when instructions were 
received that the German government had accepted General Foch's 
armistice terms and that hostilities were to cease at 11 o'clock on the 
morning of November 11. 

11. The Armistice. — Lack of space forbids a statement in full of 
the text of the armistice terms. The substance of the agreement is, 
however, as follows : 

a. Immediate evacuation of invaded territory on the part of Ger- 
man forces. 

6. Repatriation at once of all inhabitants of said invaded coun- 
tries, including hostages. 

c. Evacuation by the German armies of that part of Germany on 
the left bank of the Rhine ; this territory to be occupied and 
administered by the Allied forces. 

d. A neutral zone to be established on the right bank of the Rhine 
between that stream and a line drawn parallel to it forty kilo- 
meters east of it. 

e. Surrender, in good condition, of the following German equip- 
ment: 5,000 pieces of artillery, 30,000 machine guns, 2,000 
airplanes, 5,000 locomotives, 10,000 motor trucks, etc. 

/. No destruction of property in the area to be evacuated, no 
evacuation of inhabitants, or industrial equipment. 

g. Immediate repatriation without reciprocity of Allied prisoners 
of war, and the right of requisition to be exercised by Allied 
forces in all occupied territory. 

h. Immediate cessation of hostilities at sea, and definite informa- 
tion given as to the location of all German ships, mines, etc. 

*, Surrender to the Allies of all submarines, six battle cruisers, 
ten batleships, eight light cruisers, and fifty destroyers. 

j. Freedom of access to and from the Baltic and the Black Sea. 

Similar armistices were at about the same time granted to Aus- 
tria and Turkey. 

Substance of Wilson's Fourteen Points as a Basis op Peace. 

Early in 1918 President Wilson in an address to Congress named 
fourteen points as essential in a consideration of peace. Stated in 
condensed form, they are as follows : 

1. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at. 

2. Absolute freedom of navigation upon the seas, outside of ter- 
ritorial waters, alike in peace as in war. 

155 



3. The removal, as far as possible, of all economic barriers and 
the establishment of an equality of trade conditions among 
the nations. 

4. Adequate {^larantees given that national armaments will be 
reduced to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety. 

5. An open and impartial adjustment of all colonial claims. 

6. The evacuation of all Russian territory. 

7. Belgium to be evacuated and restored without any attempt to 
limit her sovereignty. 

8. All French territory to be freed and the invaded portions 
restored. 

9. A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy along the lines of 
nationality. 

10. The people of Austria-Hungary to be accorded the freest 
opjjortunity for autonomous development. 

11. Kcumania, Serbia, and Montenegro to be evacuated, and occu- 
pied territories restored. 

12. The sovereignty of the Turkish portions of the Ottoman em- 
pire to be assured, and the Dardanelles to be opened to world 
commerce without discrimination. 

13. An independent Polish state to be established. 

14. A general league of nations to be formed, under specific cove- 
nants, for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of 
political independence and territorial integrity to great and 
small states alike. 

Preliminaries to the Drawing Up of the Peace Treaty. 

The Allied nations of Europe accepted, for the most part, Presi- 
dent Wilson's Fourteen Point as the basis for peace consideration. 
Late in November, 1918, the President announced his intention of sail- 
ing for France for the purpose of taking part in the discussion and 
settlement of the main features of the treaty of peace. On December 
4 he sailed from New York on the transport George Wasliington. The 
Peace Conference met in Versailles early in 1919 and at once took 
iip its work. The confiieting claims of the various nations and the 
enormous mass of detail to be acted upon necessitated a session lasting 
for several months. During this time the spread of Bolshevism 
throughout eastern Europe and Germany further complicated the 
work of the peace delegates. By far the most conspicuous figures at 
the Conference were the "Big Four," Lloyd George, President Wil- 
son, Clemenceau, and Orlando. President Wilson's great popularity 
abroad, together with the fact that, of all the Allied nations, the 

15G 



United States was the least impaired in its strength and resources, 
.proved a potent factor in the making' of a treaty consistent with 
American ideals. On May 7, 1919, the official text of the terms was 
made public. At first the acting government of Germany avowed its 
purpose of refusing to accept the treaty, but a few weeks later it 
bowed to the inevitable and the treaty was signed. 

CONDENSED OUTLINE OF THE PEACE TREATY. 
I. Section One, 

1. League of Nations: 

a. Member ship. — Members will be the signatories of the cove- 
nant and other states invited to accede. 
&. Secretariat. — A permanent secretariat to be established at 
the seat of the league, which will be at Geneva. 

c. Assembly. — Assembly to consist of representatives of the 

members of the league and will meet at stated intervals. 
Voting to be by states, each member to have one vote. 

d. Council.— Qowncil will consist of representatives of the five 

great allied powers, together with representatives of four 
other members. 

e. Armaments. — Council will formulate plans for reduction 

of armaments. 

/. Prevention of War. — Upon any war or threat of war Coun- 
cil will meet to consider common action. Members 
pledged to submit matters of dispute to arbitration. 

g. Validity of Treaties. — All treaties to be registered with the 
secretariat, and published. 

h. Mandatories. — The care of nations not yet able to stand by 
themselves will be entrusted to advanced nations. This 
tutelage to be under what is known as the mandatory 
system. 

i. General international provisions. 

II. Section Two. 

1. Boundaries of Germany. 

a. Germany cedes to France Alsace-Lorraine. 
&. To Belgium two small districts between Luxumburg and 
Holland. 

c. To Poland the cession of 27,000 square miles from eastern 

Germany. 

d. Danzig to be internationalized. 

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TIL Section Three. 

1. Belgium. 

a. Germany to consent to abrogation of Treaty of 1839. 

2. Luxemburg. 

a. Germany renounces her various treaties with Luxemburg 
and recognizes that it has ceased to have any connection 
with the empire. 

3. Left Bank of Rhine. 

a. To be left as specified in armistice. 

4. Sa^r Basin. 

In compensation for the destruction of coal mines in 
northern France, and as payment on account of repara- 
tion, Germany cedes to France full ownership of the coal 
mines of the Saar Basin. 

IV. Section Four. 

1. Czechoslovak State. — Germany recognizes the total independ- 
ence of German-Austria and of the Czeeho-Slovak State. 

2. Denmark. — The frontier between Germany and Denmark to be 
fixed by the self-determination of the populace. 

3. Helgoland. — To be demolished at the expense of Germany. 

4. Russia. — Germany to recognize the independence of all terri- 
tories that were part of the former Russian Empire, and to 
agree to abrogation of Brest -Litovsk Treaty. 

V. Section Five. 

1. All German concessions and territory in China must be re- 
nounced. Germany to lose African colonies. 

2. Shantung ceded to Japan. 

3. Germany recognizes British protectorate over Egypt. 

4. Germany accepts all arrangements made by Allied powers with 
Turkey and Bulgaria. 

5. Germany to accept the League of Nations, but is not to be- 
come a member at once. 

VI. Section Six. 

1. German army is limited to 100,000 men, and conscription is 
barred. 

2. All fortifications for 30 miles east of Rhine to be destroyed. 

4. Kiel Canal to be opened to all nations. 

5. Germany to be allowed 6 small battleships, 6 light cruisers, 12 
destroyers, 1 2 torpedo boats, and no submarines. 

158 



6. Armed forces of Germany must not include any military or 
naval air forces. 

7. Allies to hold selected German officers until Germany has sur- 
rendered i^ersons guilty of offenses agfainst the laws and customs 
of war. 

VII. Section Seven. 

1. William Hohenzollern, former Emperor of Germany to be 
tried by special tribunal selected by Allied powers. 

VIII. Section Eight. 

1. All civilian damages to be reimbursed by Germany. 

2. Germany to make an initial step toward reparation by the pay- 
ment of 20,000,000,000 marks within two years. 

4. Germany I'enounces all title to disputed cables. 

IX. Sections Nine-Fifteen.— Consist chiefly of amplifications of the 

above mentioned points, and of stipulations as to the manner in 
which these decrees are to be carried out. 

Note : — The peace terms are likely to be svibjected to certain 
minor changes and modifications before being ratified by all parties to 
the agreement. 



159 



LEFe?0 



